Hydrino, H(1/p), is any small form of atomic hydrogen with state energy E n = -13.598/n 2 eV, in which n = 1/p, and p is a limited integer 1 < p ≤ 137. Electron transition to a hydrino state is non-radiative and requires a quantized amount of energy, 2mE1 (m is integer) to be transferred to a catalyst. Furthermore, hydrino can dimerize to molecular hydrino, H 2 (1/p), by loss of its bond energy, e.g., to a reaction wall. In contrast to molecular hydrogen, molecular hydrino is paramagnetic with S = 1/2. We have previously reported a uniquely sharp multi-line EPR spectrum for gaseous molecular hydrino included in spheres of gallium oxide hydroxide, H 2 (1/4)@Ga(O)OH, which was produced in a plasma discharge reactor with gallium as an electrode and nascent water as the catalyst. Contrarily, EPR spectra of a very different nature are exhibited by H 2 (1/4) produced in multiple reactors of different type. Broad-line powder patterns are observed extending from 0 to some 8000 Gauss in dual-mode X-band. Unusual temperature dependence includes anti-Curie behaviour and a magnetic phase transition around 107 K. Frequency-dependent resonance conditions are identified in L-, S-, X-, and Q-band. The broad EPR is analyzed in terms of a temperature-dependent dimer-of-dimers to dimer equilibrium of molecular hydrino interstitially included in the microcrystals of powder hosts. The room-temperature EPR provides a simple fingerprint identification tool to monitor the production of molecular hydrino in stable catchers.

Quantum mechanics postulates that the hydrogen atom has a stable ground state from which it can be promoted to excited states by capture of electromagnetic radiation, with the energy of all possible states given by E-n = 13.598/n(2) eV, in which n >= 1 is a positive integer. It has been previously proposed that the n =1 state is not the true ground state, and that so-called hydrino states of lower energy can exist, which are characterized by fractional quantum numbers n =1/ p, in which 1 < p <= 137 is a limited integer. Electron transition to a hydrino state, H(1/p) is nonradiative and requires a quantized amount of energy, 2mE(1) (m is an integer), to be transferred to a catalyst. Numerous putative hydrino-forming reactions have been previously explored and the products have been characterized by a range of analytical methods. Molecular hydrino has been predicted to be paramagnetic. Here, we give an account of an electron paramagnetic resonance (EPR) study of molecular hydrino H-2(1/4) that was produced as gaseous inclusion in polymeric Ga(0)OH by a plasma reaction of atomic hydrogen with non -hydrogen bonded water as the catalyst. A sharp, complex, multi-line EPR spectrum is found, whose detailed properties prove to be consistent with predictions from hydrino theory. Molecular hydrino was also identified in gas chromatography as a compound faster than molecular hydrogen. (C) 2022 The Author(s). Published by Elsevier Ltd on behalf of Hydrogen Energy Publications LLC.

Quantum mechanics postulates that the hydrogen atom has a stable ground state from which it can be promoted to excited states by capture of electromagnetic radiation, with the energy of all possible states given by En = -13.598/n2 eV, in which n ≥ 1 is a positive integer. By contrast, it has been proposed that the n = 1 state is not the true ground state, and that so-called ‘hydrino’ states of lower energy can exist, which are characterized by fractional quantum numbers n = 1/p, in which 1 < p ≤ 137 is a limited integer 1,2 . Electron transition to a hydrino state, H(1/p) is non-radiative and requires a quantized amount of energy, 2mE1 (m is an integer), to be transferred to a catalyst 3,4 . Since its inception 5 the hydrino hypothesis has remained highly controversial 6-17 and laboratory verification studies by its proponents have been criticised 18,19 . Remarkably, no experimental testing by independent researchers has been described in the literature over the past 31 years. Here, we give an account of an independent electron paramagnetic resonance (EPR) study of molecular hydrino H2(1/4) that was produced by a plasma reaction of atomic hydrogen with non-hydrogen bonded water as the catalyst. A sharp, complex, multi-line EPR spectrum is found, whose detailed properties prove to be semi-quantitatively consistent with predictions 20 from hydrino theory with an average error less than 0.09 G (0.2%) over a 39 G span of 37 lines. We have sought but failed to find reasonable alternative, ‘conventional’ interpretations for the detected paramagnetism. Fundamental relevance of the hydrino hypothesis lies in its challenging some of the foundations of the theory of quantum mechanics 1 . Very high net energy release during hydrino formation signifies technological relevance as a novel method of green energy production with recent validation at the 100 kW continuous power level by measurement of steam production 20-27 .

Hydrated silver shots comprising a source of H and HOH catalyst were ignited by passing a low voltage, high current through the shot to produce explosive plasma that emitted brilliant light predominantly in the short-wavelength 10 to 300 nm region. Based on Stark broadening, the initially optically thick essentially 100% ionized plasma expanded at sound speed or greater and thinned to emit EUV and UV light. The peak power of 20 MW was measured using absolute spectroscopy over the 22.8-647 nm region wherein the optical emission energy was 250 times the applied energy. Synchronized high-speed video and spectroscopic recording of the plasma emission and the measurement of the applied ignition power over time showed that plasma persisted even after the ignition power decayed to zero. Continuous megawatt-level power was recorded on a hydrino reactor wherein continuous brilliant plasma was maintained by HOH and H produced from water-entrained injected molten silver matrix. The molten fuel produced the same EUV spectrum as the shots, but converted to 5700 K blackbody radiation of about 1 m(2) surface area with a positive feedback cycle of silver vaporization and absorption of the hydrino reaction emission with the plasma becoming increasingly optically thick. The calorimetrically measured power of a typical 80 mg, 10 microliter shot ignition released by the nascent HOH catalyzed transition of H to hydrino state H-2(1/4) was 400,000 W. Based on the shockwave propagation velocity and the corresponding pressure, the high-current ignition of water in a silver matrix was measured to produce a shock wave that was equivalent to about 10 times more moles of gunpowder. The catalysis reaction product H-2(1/4) was identified by Raman spectroscopy, photoluminescence emission spectroscopy, X-ray photoelectron spectroscopy, and MAS H-1 NMR.

EUV continuum radiation（10–30 nm） arising only from very low energy pulsed pinch gas discharges comprising some hydrogen was first observed at Black Light Power, Inc. and reproduced at the Harvard Center for Astrophysics（Cf A）. The source was determined to be due to the transition of H to the lower-energy hydrogen or hydrino state H（1/4） whose emission matches that observed wherein alternative sources were eliminated. The identity of the catalyst that accepts 3 · 27.2 eV from the H to cause the H to H（1/4） transition was determined to HOH versus 3H. The mechanism was elucidated using different oxide-coated electrodes that were selective in forming HOH versus plasma forming metal atoms as well as from the intensity profile that was a mismatch for the multi-body reaction required during 3H catalysis. The HOH catalyst was further shown to give EUV radiation of the same nature by igniting a solid fuel comprising a source of H and HOH catalyst by passing a low voltage, high current through the fuel to produce explosive plasma. No chemical reaction can release such high-energy light. No high field existed to form highly ionized ions that could give radiation in this EUV region that persisted even without power input. This plasma source serves as strong evidence for the existence of the transition of H to hydrino H（1/4） by HOH as the catalyst and a corresponding new power source wherein initial extraordinarily brilliant light-emitting prototypes are already producing photovoltaic generated electrical power. The hydrino product of a catalyst reaction of atomic hydrogen was analyzed by multiple spectroscopic techniques. Moreover, the m H catalyst was identified to be active in astronomical sources such as the Sun, stars and interstellar medium wherein the characteristics of hydrino match those of the dark matter of the Universe.

Atomic hydrogen is predicted to form fractional Rydberg energy states H(1/p) called "hydrino atoms" wherein n = 1/2, 1/3, 1/4, ..., 1/p (p <= 137 is an integer) replaces the well-known parameter n = integer in the Rydberg equation for hydrogen excited states. The transition of H to a stable hydrino state H[a(H)/p = m + 1] having a binding energy of p(2).13.6 eV occurs by a nonradiative resonance energy transfer of m.27.2 eV (m is an integer) to a matched energy acceptor such as nascent H2O that has a potential energy of 81.6 eV (m = 3). The energy transfer to the HOH catalyst results in its ionization wherein the charge build up may become limiting of the further propagation of the catalysis reaction. An applied, low-voltage, high current was predicted to ameliorate this space charge inhibition of the hydrino reaction. To achieve these conditions, a solid fuel was used that comprises a highly conductive matrix such as a metal powder with bound or suspended H2O that served as the source of HOH catalyst and H. When the high current was applied, the H2O-based solid exploded with a tremendous burst of optical power as recorded with highspeed video and spectroscopically. The power density was confirmed to be about 3 x 10(10) W/liter of fuel volume using the measured time of the event and the energy released as measured by bomb calorimetry. The predicted molecular hydrino H-2(1/4) was identified as a product by Raman spectroscopy, photoluminescence emission spectroscopy, and X-ray photoelectron spectroscopy (XPS). Copyright (C) 2014, Hydrogen Energy Publications, LLC. Published by Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.

CIHT cells, each comprising a Mo, MoCu (50-50 at%), or MoNi (50-50 at%) hydrogen permeable membrane anode or tape cast CoCu, clad onto a hydrogen permeable Ni membrane, NiO cathode, a LiOH-LiBr eutectic mixture as the electrolyte, and MgO matrix in some cases, exploit hydrino formation as a half-cell reaction to serve as a new electrical energy source. The cells were operated under intermittent H2O electrolysis to generate H at the anode and then discharged to form hydrinos wherein H2O vapor as well as some O-2 was supplied from the atmosphere in open cells. Net electrical production over the electrolysis input and hydrogen supplied to the anode was measured to be multiples of the electrical input at about 10 mW/cm(2) anode area. The predicted molecular hydrino H-2(1/4) was identified as a product of CIHT cells by MAS H-1 NMR, electron-beam excitation emission spectroscopy, Raman spectroscopy, X-ray photoelectron spectroscopy, and photoluminescence emission spectroscopy. Copyright (C) 2014, Hydrogen Energy Publications, LLC. Published by Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.

Atomic hydrogen is predicted to form fractional Rydberg energy states H(1/p) called "hydrino atoms" wherein n = 1/2,1/3,1/4,...,1/p (p <= 137 is an integer) replaces the well-known parameter n = integer in the Rydberg equation for hydrogen excited states. The transition of H to a stable hydrino state H[a(H)/p = m + 1] having a binding energy of p(2).13.6 eV occurs by a nonradiative resonance energy transfer of m.27.2 eV (m is an integer) to a matched energy acceptor such as nascent H2O that has a potential energy of 81.6 eV (m = 3). The nascent H2O molecule formed by an oxidation reaction of OH- at a hydrogen anode is predicted to serve as a catalyst to form H(1/4) with an energy release of 204 eV compared to the 1.48 eV required to produce H from electrolysis of H2O. CIHT cells, each comprising a LiOH-LiBr eutectic mixture as the electrolyte exploit hydrino formation as a half-cell reaction to serve as a new electrical energy source. Net electrical production over the electrolysis input and hydrogen supplied to the anode was measured using an Arbin BT 2000. The electrical energies were continuously output over long-duration, measured on different systems, configurations, and modes of operation and were typically multiples of the electrical input that in most cases exceed the input by a factor of about 2 at about 10 mW/cm(2) anode area. The power density was increased by a factor of over 10 by running a corresponding high current. The thermal energy balance of solid fuels that form the HOH catalyst by a reaction akin to those of CIHT cells were measured using both a water flow calorimeter and a Setaram DSC 131 differential scanning calorimeter (DSC). The DSC results confirmed water flow calorimetric (WFC) results and the former were further independently replicated at Setaram Instrumentation based in France. The thermal energy balance for solid fuels such as Co(OH)(2) + CuBr2 and Cu(OH)(2) + CuBr2 were up to 60 times the maximum theoretical for both types of calorimeters with supportive XRD of the WFC products. DSC performed on FeOOH and Cu(OH)(2) + FeBr2 in gold crucibles at Perkin Elmer showed up to four times the maximum theoretical energy. DSC and XRD were independently performed on the starting materials. The MAS H-1 NMR showed a predicted upfield matrix shift of a KOH-KCl hydrino getter when exposed to the gas from a reacting Cu(OH)(2) + CuBr2 solid fuel in a sealed cell. A Raman peak starting at 1950 cm(-1) matched the free space rotational energy of H-2(1/4) (0.2414 eV). The solid fuels scaled linearly to over 5 kW and confirm the energetic reaction of hydrinos and may serve as a thermally reversible system to continuously generate power for commercial uses. Copyright (C) 2014, Hydrogen Energy Publications, LLC. Published by Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.

It is shown herein that each and every comment by D. Sundholn (‘DS’) on the Catalyst-Induced Hydrino Transition (CIHT) paper [1] is factually incorrect, erroneous, or both. First, the authors of the article entitled CIHT electrochemical cell [1] present an experimental setup that is claimed to form hydrinos, that is, an electronic state of the hydrogen atom with a binding energy of p13.6 eV, p= 2, 3, 4,..., 137, not 13.6 eV as claimed by DS. Second, standard quantum mechanics (SQM) was never used to predict hydrinos; rather, the states were derived in analytical equations from classical physical laws (CPLs) [1]. Third, CPL gives the excited states, the life times of excited states, the Lamb shift, the muonic hydrogen Lamb shift, the fine structure, the hyperfine structure, the electron g factor, spin and orbital angular momentum, spin–orbital coupling, the selection rules, the exact equations of the excited state photons, and electrons wherein these results cannot be derived using SQM [1]. Fourth, the angular momentum of the electron is the invariant ħ independent of electronic state [1]. This is not true, is the case of SQM. CPL gives the result that the electron energy values of the one-electron atom are

Atomic hydrogen is predicted to form fractional Rydberg energy states H(1/p) called hydrino atoms' wherein n=1/2,1/3,1/4,...,1/p (p137 is an integer) replaces the well-known parameter n=integer in the Rydberg equation for hydrogen excited states. The transition of H to a stable hydrino state H[a(H)/p=m+1] having a binding energy of p(2)x13.6eV occurs by a nonradiative resonance energy transfer of mx27.2eV (m is an integer) to a matched energy acceptor such as nascent H2O which has a potential energy of 81.6eV (m=3) to form an intermediate that decays with the emission of continuum bands with short wavelength cutoffs and energies of m(2)x13.6eV. The predicted H(1/4) continuum radiation in the region 10 to 30nm was observed first at BlackLight Power, Inc. (BLP) and reproduced at the Harvard Center for Astrophysics (CfA) wherein H2O catalyst was formed by a hydrogen reduction reaction at the anode of a hydrogen pinch plasma. By the same mechanism, the nascent H2O molecule formed by an oxidation reaction of OH- at a hydrogen anode is predicted to serve as a catalyst to form H(1/4) with an energy release of 204eV compared to the 1.48eV required to produce H from electrolysis of H2O. CIHT cells, each comprising a Ni anode, NiO cathode, a LiOH-LiBr eutectic mixture as the electrolyte, and MgO matrix exploit hydrino formation as a half-cell reaction to serve as a new electrical energy source. The cells were operated under intermittent H2O electrolysis to generate H at the anode and then discharged to form hydrinos wherein trace H2O vapor was supplied as entrained in an inert gas flow in otherwise closed cells. Net electrical production over the electrolysis input was measured using an Arbin BT 2000 (<0.1% error) and confirmed using a digital oscilloscope, wherein no theoretical conventional energy was possible. Materials characterizations included those that quantified any compositional change of the electrolyte by elemental analysis using ICPMS, XRF, and XRD, and SEM were performed on the anode. The electrical energies were continuously output over long-duration, measured on different systems, configurations, and modes of operation and were typically multiples of the electrical input that in most cases exceed the input by a factor of greater than 10. Calorimetry of solid fuels that exploited the same catalyst and a similar reaction mechanism showed excess thermal energy greater than 10 times the maximum possible from any conventional reaction. The predicted molecular hydrino H-2(1/4) was identified as a product of CIHT cells and solid fuels by MAS H-1 NMR, ToF-SIMS, ESI-ToFMS, electron-beam excitation emission spectroscopy, Raman spectroscopy, photoluminescence emission spectroscopy, FTIR, and XPS. Copyright (c) 2013 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.

Under a study contracted by GEN3 Partners, spectra of high current pinch discharges in pure hydrogen and helium were recorded in the extreme ultraviolet radiation region at the Harvard Smithsonian Center for Astrophysics (CfA) in an attempt to reproduce experimental results published by BlackLight Power, Inc. (BLP) showing predicted continuum radiation due to hydrogen in the 10-30 nm region (Mills, R. L. and Lu, Y. 2010 Hydrino continuum transitions with cutoffs at 22.8 nm and 10.1 nm. Int. J. Hydrog. Energy 35, 8446-8456, doi: 10.1016?j.ijhydene.2010.05.098). Alternative explanations were considered to the claimed interpretation of the continuum radiation as being that emitted during transitions of H to lower-energy states (hydrinos). Continuum radiation was observed at CfA in the 10-30 nm region that matched BLP's results. Considering the low energy of 5.2 J per pulse, the observed radiation in the energy range of about 120-40 eV, reference experiments and analysis of plasma gases, cryofiltration to remove contaminants, and spectra of the electrode metal, no conventional explanation was found in the prior or present work to be plausible including contaminants, electrode metal emission, and Bremsstrahlung, ion recombination, molecular or molecular ion band radiation, and instrument artifacts involving radicals and energetic ions reacting at the charge-coupled device and H-2 re-radiation at the detector chamber. Moreover, predicted selective extraordinarily high-kinetic energy H was observed by the corresponding Doppler broadening of the Balmer alpha line.

. Spectra of low energy, high current pinch discharges in pure hydrogen, oxygen, nitrogen, and helium were recorded in the EUV region, and continuum radiation was only observed from hydrogen [www.blacklightpower.com/pdf/GEN3_Harvard.pdf; Int. J. Hydrogen Energy 35 , 8446 (2010); Cent. Eur. J. Phys. 8 , 318 (2010)]. The continuum radiation bands at 10.1 and 22.8 nm and going to longer wavelengths for theoretically predicted transitions of hydrogen to lower-energy, so called “hydrino” states, was observed first at blacklight power, Inc. (BLP) and reproduced at the Harvard center for astrophysics (CfA). Considering the low energy of 5.2 J per pulse, the observed radiation in the energy range of about 120 eV to 40 eV and reference experiments, no conventional explanation was found to be plausible, including electrode metal emission, Bremsstrahlung radiation, ion recombination, molecular or molecular ion band radiation, and instrument artifacts involving radicals and energetic ions reacting at the CCD and H 2 re-radiation at the detector chamber. To further study these continuum bands assigned to hydrinos, time resolved spectra were performed that showed a unique delay of the continuum radiation of about 0.1 μ s and a duration of < 2 μ s following the high-voltage pulse consistent with the mechanism of recombination to form the optimal high-density atomic hydrogen in the pinch that permits the H–H interactions to cause the hydrino transitions and corresponding emission.

The design and cost estimates compared with other systems of an energy-producing reactor system are presented. Heat from hydrino reactions within individual cells provides both the reactor power and the heat for regeneration of the reactants. These processes occur continuously over a plurality of cells in different phases of the processes. The hydrino reactions are maintained and regenerated in a batch mode using thermally coupled multi-cells arranged in bundles wherein cells in the power-production phase of the cycle heat cells in the regeneration phase. In this intermittent cell power design, the thermal power is statistically constant as the cell number becomes large, or the cell cycle is controlled to achieve steady power. The conversion of thermal power to electrical power requires the use of a heat engine exploiting a cycle such as a Rankine, Brayton, Stirling, or steam-engine cycle (Int. J. Energy Res. 1997; 21:113127; Int. J. Energy Res. 1998; 22:237248; Int. J. Energy Res. 1998; 22:9911000; Int. J. Energy Res. 2010; 34:10711087; Int. J. Energy Res. 2009; 33:12031232). Owing to the temperatures, economy goal, and efficiency, the Rankine cycle is the most practical and can produce electricity from a steam source at 3040% efficiency with a component capital cost of about $300 per kW electric. Conservatively, assuming a conversion efficiency of 25%, the total cost with the addition of the boiler and chemical components is estimated at $1380 per kW electric. The system applications for distributed power (110?MW electric) and central generation retrofit and green-field projects are projected to be very competitive relative to existing power sources and systems. Copyright (C) 2011 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.

The specifics of a continuous hydrino reaction system design are presented. Heat from the hydrino reactions within individual cells provide both reactor power and the heat for regeneration of the reactants. These processes occur continuously and the power from each cell is constant. The conversion of thermal power to electrical power requires the use of a heat engine exploiting a cycle such as a Rankine, Brayton, Stirling, or steam-engine cycle. Due to the temperatures, economy goal, and efficiency, the Rankine cycle is the most practical and can produce electricity at 30–40% efficiency with a component capital cost of about $300 per kW electric. Conservatively, assuming a conversion efficiency of 25% the total cost with the addition of the boiler and chemical components is estimated at $1064 per kW electric.

Energy balances were measured for representative thermally regenerative reactions of four classes of hydrino catalyst systems, each capable of resonantly accepting m x 27.2 eV from H to form H(1/p), Rydberg states of atomic hydrogen called ohydrino atomso wherein n = 1/2, 1/3, 1/4,..., 1/p (p 137 is an integer) replaces the well-known parameter n = integer in the Rydberg equation for the excited states of hydrogen. Specifically, hydride-halide exchange reactions were tested where K and NaH served as catalysts since they form K3+ and Na2+ ions by absorbing 3 x 27.2 eV and 2 x 27.2 eV, respectively. Typical parameters measured by absolute water-flow calorimetry were two to five times energy gain relative to regeneration chemistry and 7 W/cm3. The predicted molecular hydrino and hydrino hydride products H2(1/4) and H-(1/4) corresponding to 50 MJ/mole H2 consumed were confirmed by the solution 1H NMR peak at 1.2 ppm and XPS peak at 11 eV, respectively.