Soundscape ecology and ecoacoustics study the spatiotemporal dynamics of a soundscape and how the dynamics reflect and influence ecological processes in the environment. Soundscape analysis methods employ acoustic recording units (ARUs) that collect acoustic data in study areas over time. Analyzing these data includes computation of several acoustic diversity indices developed to quantify species abundance, richness, or habitat condition through digital audio processing and algorithm adaptations for within-group populations. However, the success of specific indices is often dependent on habitat type and biota richness present and analyzing these data can be challenging due to temporal pseudo-replication. Time-series analytical methods address the inherent problems of temporal autocorrelation for soundscape analyses challenges. Animal population dynamics fluctuate in a variety of ways due to changes in habitat or natural patterns of a landscape and chronic noise exposure, with soundscape phenology patterns evident in terrestrial and aquatic environments. Historical phenological soundscape patterns have been used to predict expected soundscape patterns in long-term studies but limited work has explored how forecasting can quantify changes in short-term studies. We evaluate how forecasting from an acoustic index can be used to quantify change in an acoustic community response to a loud, acute noise. We found that the acoustic community of a Midwestern restored prairie had decreased acoustic community activity after a loud sound event (LSE), a Civil War Reenactment, mainly driven by observed changes in the bird community and quantified using two methods: an automated acoustic index and species richness. Time-series forecasting maybe considered an underutilized tool in analyzing acoustic data whose experimental design can be flawed with temporal autocorrelation. Forecasting using auto ARIMA with acoustic indices could benefit decision makers who consider ecological questions at different time scales.

Some mature-forest bird species use early-successional habitat to a great extent during the breeding season, but the specific drivers behind this habitat association remain poorly understood. In this study we identified important species-specific ecological factors contributing to early-successional site-use by mature-forest bird species during the breeding season. From 2015 to 2017, we used constant-effort mist-netting to survey breeding birds in six 7 to 9 year-old regenerating forest clearcuts in southern Indiana, and characterized early-successional habitat associations of the 6 mostfrequently captured mature-forest bird species (Worm-eating Warbler [lehnitheros vermivorum], Ovenbird [Seiurus aurocapilla], Scarlet Tanager [Piranga olivacea], Wood Thrush [Ilylocichla 'nave/Ina], Black-and-white Warbler [11,1niotilta varia], and Red-eyed Vireo [Vireo olivaceus]). We collected detailed environmental covariate data to account for variation in food availability and habitat structure variables corresponding- to each 10 d sampling period at the clearcut-site scale. We fit separate generalized linear mixed models, using a negative binomial error structure, for each of the 6 focal bird species captured within clearcuts. Both habitat structure and food availability variables were important predictors of site use for mature-forest birds in early-successional habitat. Vegetation density was included in hest-tit models for 5 of the 6 matureforest species. Fruit availability was included in best-fit models explaining Scarlet Tanager and Wood Thrush captures, and invertebrate dry mass was included in best-fit models for Worm-eating Warbler, Ovenbird, and Black-and-white Warbler. The varying importance of both habitat structure and food availability variables for multiple mature-forest bird species suggests that the factors in lluencing the use of early-successional habitat by mature-forest birds during the breeding season may differ among species. Received 23 April 2019. Accepted 11 December 2019.

The Northern Saw-whet Owl (Aegolius acadicus) is a highly migratory owl that occurs throughout North America. Banding stations have studied the migratory habits of this species, but these studies rarely collect significant data regarding the origin of migrant birds captured in the midwestern United States. In the last 20 years Northern Saw-whet Owl ecology has been studied broadly; however, little is known how different populations may interact with one another. Many avian species with large geographic ranges often have populations that breed and winter in separate areas. Little has been documented to establish if this pattern exists in Northern Saw-whet Owls, a species where individuals are migratory, sedentary, and nomadic. Stable isotope ratios using deuterium δ2H in feathers have been successfully used to estimate the breeding origin of birds. We used stable isotope analysis of δ2H in conjunction with an isoscape map to determine breeding origins for Indiana Northern Saw-whet Owls. We collected 41 feather samples from migrating owls at 6 different banding sites across Indiana from October to November 2017. Because higher enrichment values in adult owl feathers complicate analysis, we only analyzed samples from young (hatching-year) individuals. After analysis and exclusion of birds identified as outliers, the model suggested that the birds originated along 44°N around the Great Lakes Region and as far east as Nova Scotia, Canada. When including outliers, the model suggested that individuals originated along 40°N between Iowa and New York. The outliers-excluded model remained more consistent with the known breeding range of this species than the outliers-included model. We successfully used this technique and our data suggests that the majority of Northern Saw-whet Owls originated from the Great Lakes Region. We recommend further investigation on the physiology and behavior of owls on the breeding grounds, which could aid in the ability to better understand differences in δ2H enrichment of this species. Better understanding of this would allow these models to be plotted more precisely onto the landscape.

Post-fledging use of early successional habitat by mature-forest birds is well-documented, but the important trophic factors driving this association remain poorly understood. We used stable isotope analysis of plasma, red blood cells, feces, and feathers to determine foraging preferences of three mature-forest bird species captured in 8-year-old clearcuts during the post-fledging period. We did not identify a significant source contribution in any consumer tissue combination using MixSIAR posterior distributions, but the position of consumer tissues in bivariate isotope mixing space suggested that all three matureforest bird species acted as generalist insectivores during the post-fledging period. Furthermore, estimates of the proportional contribution of fruit to the overall diet were <0.13 for all Scarlet Tanager (Piranga olivacea (J.F. Gmelin, 1789)) tissue types, despite observational evidence of frugivory. We observed significant differentiation in core-niche-space estimates between the two obligate insectivores (Worm-eating Warbler (Helmitheros vermivorum (J.F. Gmelin, 1789)) and Ovenbird (Seiurus aurocapilla (Linnaeus, 1766))), suggesting that clearcuts provided adequate habitat to support the different foraging strategies and invertebrate preferences of both species. By using tissues with short turnover rates to address post-fledging trophic associations of mature-forest birds, we provide a comparison of isotopic values of multiple consumer tissue types in this context.

Declining populations of forest songbirds in the eastern U.S. have emphasized a need for scientists and managers to understand habitat selection by birds in remnant patches of contiguous forest. Past work has identified effects of landscape-scale covariates on bird occurrence and abundance; however, less is known about the effects of local-scale forest structure. We applied a combination of forest inventory data and LiDAR-derived canopy height data to derive variables of local-scale forest structure in a managed forest. We then assessed the effects of these variables on the abundance of 18 forest bird species obtained from point counts, while accounting for imperfect detection using a combined distance and time-removal model. We found mean canopy height and terrain variables including elevation, slope, and aspect affected the local-scale abundance of the largest number of bird species and also had the largest effect sizes. Variables associated with vertical structure of the canopy were not important predictors of abundance. Our results confirm the importance of canopy height and terrain on abundance of multiple forest songbirds and emphasize the value of fine-scale spatial data for assessing bird habitat use.

The study of functional diversity, or the range of species' ecological roles in a community, is a rapidly expanding area in ecology. Given the extent that ecosystems are being altered, effort should shift toward assessing variation in functional diversity across landscapes with the goal of improving land use management decisions. We construct a workflow that creates three-dimensional surfaces and maps of functional diversity to examine changes in beetle functional diversity across an Indiana, USA landscape. We sampled 105 prey wood-borer and predator beetle species along a gradient of forest fragmentation across Indiana and used a number of functional traits from literature sources to capture their functional roles. We developed newly measured functional traits to estimate several traits relevant to beetles' ecological function that was unknown and not easily measured. Functional diversity indices (FRic, FDis, FDiv, and FEve) were calculated from species abundance and functional traits and used to assess changes in functional diversity along the fragmentation gradient. We predicted that habitat fragmentation would have a greater negative impact on predator beetle functional diversity than prey wood-borer functional diversity. Landscape metrics most important to the functional diversity of both wood-borer and predator beetle communities were landscape division index (LDI, an assessment of landscape subdivision) and mean shape index (MSI, a measure of patch shape complexity). Overall, three-dimensional surfaces of functional diversity and functional diversity maps across the Indiana landscape revealed that beetle functional diversity was greatest with minimal landscape subdivision. Opposite to what we predicted, we found that the prey wood-borer functional diversity was more negatively impacted by LDI than the predator beetle functional diversity. Furthermore, predator beetle functional diversity was greater with increasing MSI. The map predicted predator FRic to be highest in forested areas with intact habitat and also less sensitive to habitat fragmentation adjacent to more continuous forest. We propose that land management may be guided by revealing landscapes that are most appropriate for maximizing functional diversity of multiple communities or shifting the relative abundance within prey and beneficial predator beetle functional groups with the use of three-dimensional plots or maps.

Many birds that breed in mature forest are known to use early successional habitat to some extent during the postfledging period, but the degree of roosting use remains unclear for most species. In fact, for Neotropical migrant passerines, roosting ecology on the breeding grounds is largely undescribed. To determine female Worm-eating Warbler (Helmitheros vermivorum) breeding status, clearcut utilization, and roosting habitat during the breeding season, we attached radio transmitters to 19 female Worm-eating Warblers with fully developed brood patches caught in 8 year old clearcuts from 1 to 15 June 2016. Of the 19 radio-tagged females, 11 were found with dependent fledglings by 17 June: 5 individuals were considered to be independent (i.e., foraging and moving through the landscape without fledglings) and 6 (3 with fledglings and 3 without) to be transitory (i.e., located,5 times before the signal was lost). Nest-searching and telemetry data suggest that the postfledging period may have started by 28 May 2016 for some Worm-eating Warblers. Overall habitat use of radiotagged female Worm-eating Warblers differed, with 2 individuals associated with clearcut habitat, 3 associated with mature forest habitat, and 8 showing variable use of edge/both habitat classes. We recorded 116 different roost locations for 18 radio-tagged females in clearcut, mature forest, and edge habitats (55, 42, and 19 locations, respectively). Overall habitat preference differed among individuals, but our study suggests that early successional young forest habitat may serve an important role in Worm-eating Warbler roosting and postfledging ecology.

The Worm-eating Warbler (Helmitheros vermivorum) is typically described as a mature forest species requiring moderate to steep slopes and dense understory vegetation for breeding. However, nesting microhabitat characteristics vary regionally. Given the extensive variation in landscape topography, forest composition, and habitat structure across the breeding range, identification of important local landscape features and microhabitat characteristics is needed to formulate and implement improved conservation actions for the species. We characterized important habitat associations at two distinct scales (the landscape scale and the nest scale) to provide a detailed description of Worm-eating Warbler breeding habitat requirements in southern Indiana. Results from our point count and nest searching surveys emphasize the importance of terrain variables (i.e., steep SW-facing slopes) within mature forest habitat in southern Indiana. In addition, the structural microhabitat variable, leaf-litter depth, was an important predictor at the nest scale. Our dual-scale characterization of important habitat associations during the nesting portion of the breeding season provides a more complete understanding of Worm-eating Warbler breeding ecology in this portion of its range.

We examined how both horizontal and vertical aspects of land-cover diversity influence patterns of avian species-richness across North America. Using count data from Breeding Bird Survey routes within the conterminous USA and land-cover data from the National Land Cover Data-set, we analyzed relationships between species-richness estimates, vegetative strata, landscape diversity and elevation and geographic position using both linear-regression models and a classification and regression tree. We found that latitude, the diversity of land-cover classes present, and the proportion of the landscape containing cover-classes representing 3 vegetative strata had the strongest influence on species richness. This illustrates that, while broad-scale biodiversity trends are strongly influenced by dominant regional factors, they are also sensitive to the structure of the intermediate-level landscape. Thus, factors at multiple scales must be considered when modeling spatial patterns of biodiversity such as avian species-richness.

The American Golden-Plover (Pluvialis dominica), a species of conservation concern, uses large agricultural fields during its spring passage through the mid-western United States. In west-central Indiana, large numbers of golden-plovers make a stopover in corn or soybean fields that were harvested the previous fall. Stopovers last for a number of days during which the birds feed and molt into alternate plumage. In recent years, wind energy facilities have been developed in the area with hundreds of wind turbines erected in fields used by the golden-plovers. During spring 2011 and 2012, we investigated patterns of golden-plover behavior at these facilities in Benton County, Indiana at a site where large spring aggregations of plovers have been observed for many years. Our results showed only limited behavioral avoidance of the turbines, and suggested that wind-energy development in this area was not significantly impacting migrant golden-plovers. However, we caution that additional studies could negate these somewhat tentative findings, and we urge that further evaluation precede possible expansion of wind energy development in the region.

Contemporary forest management offers a trade-off between the potential positive effects of habitat heterogeneity on biodiversity, and the potential harm to mature forest communities caused by habitat loss and perforation of the forest canopy. While the response of taxonomic diversity to forest management has received a great deal of scrutiny, the response of functional diversity is largely unexplored. However, functional diversity may represent a more direct link between biodiversity and ecosystem function. To examine how forest management affects diversity at multiple spatial scales, we analyzed a long-term data set that captured changes in taxonomic and functional diversity of moths (Lepidoptera), longhorned beetles (Coleoptera: Cerambycidae), and breeding birds in response to contemporary silvicultural systems in oak-hickory hardwood forests. We used these data sets to address the following questions: how do even- and uneven-aged silvicultural systems affect taxonomic and functional diversity at the scale of managed landscapes compared to the individual harvested and unharvested forest patches that comprise the landscapes, and how do these silvicultural systems affect the functional similarity of assemblages at the scale of managed landscapes and patches? Due to increased heterogeneity within landscapes, we expected even-aged silviculture to increase and uneven-aged silviculture to decrease functional diversity at the landscape level regardless of impacts at the patch level. Functional diversity responses were taxon-specific with respect to the direction of change and time since harvest. Responses were also consistent across patch and landscape levels within each taxon. Moth assemblage species richness, functional richness, and functional divergence were negatively affected by harvesting, with stronger effects resulting from uneven-aged than even-aged management. Longhorned beetle assemblages exhibited a peak in species richness two years after harvesting, while functional diversity metrics did not differ between harvested and unharvested patches and managed landscapes. The species and functional richness of breeding bird assemblages increased in response to harvesting with more persistent effects in uneven- than in even-aged managed landscapes. For moth and bird assemblages, species turnover was driven by species with more extreme trait combinations. Our study highlights the variability of multi-taxon functional diversity in response to forest management across multiple spatial scales.

In our study, we aimed to investigate the influence of landscape patterns on the diversity of birds in four urban parks. The parks are located in a region that has a high value of regional biodiversity and is also highly urbanized (Jundiai, state of São Paulo [SP], in Southeastern Brazil). Using a set of aerial photos, the surrounding landscape was divided into two regions (rings) and corresponding landscape metrics were calculated. The presence of bird species was recorded monthly over a one-year period and classified according to selected ecological criteria. The land cover of the areas surrounding each park was primarily buildings and residences. Bird diversity was significantly correlated with the presence/proximity of water bodies. We state that the potential of the parks to harbor bird species is not negligible. Managing the area surrounding a park to increase the percentage of forested area and the size of forest fragments is as crucial as managing the core park area, especially for improving its attractiveness for new bird species.

Forest managers frequently must balance timber production and wildlife conservation goals when choosing management approaches. We studied the response of the breeding bird community to silvicultural treatments at multiple spatial scales over a 10-year period in 60-90 year old oak-hickory forests of Indiana, USA. We conducted point count surveys in a 3603-ha study area both before (n = 3 years) and after (n = 6 years) application of silvicultural treatments. Bird responses were analyzed at two spatial scales: management units and individual harvests. At the multi-stand management unit scale, treatments were even-aged management, uneven-aged management, and a no-harvest control. We also analyzed the responses of birds at the spatial scale of individual timber harvests (clearcuts, patch cuts, shelterwood harvests, and single-tree selection). Multi-species N-mixture models were used to estimate bird species density and richness at both spatial scales. At the management unit scale, 4 species increased in density following even-aged management (relative to the control), while 1 species (Red-eyed Vireo [Vireo olivaceus]) declined. A larger number of species responded both positively (n = 9) and negatively (n = 3) to uneven-aged management. Overall richness was significantly greater in the even-and uneven-aged treatments than in the control. At the harvest scale, only the clearcuts and patch cuts resulted in changes in the density of any species, but a larger number of species were impacted and effect sizes were generally larger in these harvests than at the management unit scale. In the clearcuts, 13 species increased in density relative to the no-harvest control, while 5 species declined. A larger number of species were impacted by patch cut harvests (18 species increasing and 6 decreasing). Overall richness was greatest in the clearcut harvests. At both scales, species that increased were generally those associated with early successional habitat, including the Eastern Towhee (Pipilo erythrophthalmus) and Indigo Bunting (Passerina cyanea), while species that declined were typically associated with mature forest habitat (e.g., Red-eyed Vireo [Vireo olivaceus] and Ovenbird [Seiurus aurocapilla]). Harvesting appeared to benefit several species of conservation concern in Indiana, including the Cerulean Warbler (Setophaga cerulea) and Black-and-white Warbler (Mniotilta varia). Both management treatments appear to be good options for simultaneously conserving bird species diversity (particularly of early-successional specialist species) while meeting other forest management goals. However, the impact of the next phases of the shelter wood harvests remains to be evaluated. (C) 2016 Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved.

Plethodontid salamanders are often monitored as indicator species for mature forest ecosystem health. In addition to relative abundance, differences in standard metabolic rate (SMR) between harvest treatments have been used to explain physiological stress in response to timber harvest. Nearly ubiquitous in forested stands throughout the northeastern United States, the Eastern Red-Backed Salamander (Plethodon cinereus) is often the focal species of such studies. In 2010, a predictive multiple regression equation was developed to calculate SMR of P. cinereus to 95% accuracy using salamander body mass and temperature. This method of SMR estimation has been implemented in field studies as a measure of salamander health. In these studies, temperature regime is the only variable measured, and SMR is calculated by standardizing on a 1-g salamander. In this study, we measured both body mass and temperature of each salamander encountered in harvested and unharvested stands and compared the published SMR calculation technique with SMR calculated using observed temperature and body mass data. We found larger variability in temperature in harvested stands using both methods but did not identify a similar trend in the SMR of observed salamanders. Differences in salamander body mass and snout-vent length between harvested and unharvested stands in Fall 2013 suggest that researchers should use caution when making claims about SMR when data on salamander body mass has not been measured.

Building upon the rich legacies of bioacoustics and animal communication, soundscape ecology represents a new perspective through which ecologists can use the acoustic properties of ecosystems to understand the complex interactions of organisms, geophysical dynamics, and human activities. In this paper, we focus on the potential benefits of a soundscape approach for enhancing ornithological research and of ornithological perspectives for advancing the nascent field of soundscape ecology. We first summarize 4 major grounding principles of soundscape ecology in relation to avian ecology, evolution, and behavior. We then propose 3 research objectives that we envision as future directions for soundscape ecology: development of (1) soundscape metrics and interpretation, (2) understanding of soundscape drivers, and (3) soundscape-based disturbance indicators. Ornithological contributions can help advance the field of soundscape ecology to obtain these research objectives across various spatial, temporal, and organizational scales. Detailed ornithological knowledge can aid in the improvement of soundscape databases, interpretation of soundscape metrics, and validation of soundscape theories. Such contributions should also invite input from other taxonomic-group specialists, further enriching soundscape ecology. Reciprocally, soundscape approaches can enrich ornithology by offering an acoustic-based theoretical framework grounded in a broad ecological context, hosting soundscape collections from diverse ecosystems, and advancing acoustic methodologies. This paper is intended to stimulate further discussion and collaboration between ornithologists, soundscape ecologists, and any researchers studying sound in an ecological context in order to enhance research in these important domains of ecology.

Reported here is the first documented successful chestnut-sided warbler (Setophaga pensylvanica) breeding attempt in south-central Indiana in 20 years. Although small breeding populations have historically utilized available habitat in the southern half of the state, Indiana birders have only recorded 22 chestnut-sided warbler sightings in this region during the breeding season (June—July) over the last 35 years. Constant-effort mist-netting was used to monitor six, 7-year-old clearcuts in the Morgan Monroe and Yellowwood State Forests (Morgan and Brown counties, IN) during the summer of 2015. Over the course of the breeding season, 16 chestnut-sided warblers: seven males, five females (four with a brood patch indicating breeding attempts), and four hatch-year birds (indicating successful breeding) were banded. In addition to one other report of confirmed breeding in northern Indiana (Miami County), this is the only confirmed chestnut-sided warbler breeding population in the state within the last decade. Breeding of chestnut-sided warblers in 2015 demonstrates the value of maintaining some early successional habitat in southern Indiana landscapes.

The past was a world of giants, with abundant whales in the sea and large animals roaming the land. However, that world came to an end following massive late-Quaternary megafauna extinctions on land and widespread population reductions in great whale populations over the past few centuries. These losses are likely to have had important consequences for broad-scale nutrient cycling, because recent literature suggests that large animals disproportionately drive nutrient movement. We estimate that the capacity of animals to move nutrients away from concentration patches has decreased to about 8% of the preextinction value on land and about 5% of historic values in oceans. For phosphorus (P), a key nutrient, upward movement in the ocean by marine mammals is about 23% of its former capacity (previously about 340 million kg of P per year). Movements by seabirds and anadromous fish provide important transfer of nutrients from the sea to land, totalling ∼150 million kg of P per year globally in the past, a transfer that has declined to less than 4% of this value as a result of the decimation of seabird colonies and anadromous fish populations. We propose that in the past, marine mammals, seabirds, anadromous fish, and terrestrial animals likely formed an interlinked system recycling nutrients from the ocean depths to the continental interiors, with marine mammals moving nutrients from the deep sea to surface waters, seabirds and anadromous fish moving nutrients from the ocean to land, and large animals moving nutrients away from hotspots into the continental interior.

The expansion of populations of invasive species continues to compromise the ecological and economic integrity of our natural resources. The negative effects of invasive species on native biota are widely reported. However, less is known about how the duration (i.e., age of oldest invaders) and intensity (i.e., density and percent cover) of an invasion influences native plant diversity and abundance at the microsite scale. We examined the influence of density, percent cover, and age of Amur honeysuckle (a nonnative invasive shrub), and several environmental factors on native plant taxa at 12 mixed hardwood forests in Indiana, USA. Overall, study sites with the greatest taxonomic diversity (Shannon's Diversity; H'), richness (S), percent cover, and density of native vegetation also had the lowest percent cover of Amur honeysuckle in the upper vertical stratum (1.01 to 5 m). Based on linear mixed model analyses, percent cover of Amur honeysuckle in the upper vertical stratum was consistently and negatively correlated with H', S, total percent cover, and woody seedling density of native taxa at the microsite scale (P < 0.05). Duration of Amur honeysuckle at the microsite scale was not significant when percent cover of Amur honeysuckle in the upper vertical stratum was included in models. However, duration of Amur honeysuckle invasion was significantly correlated with dependent variables and with upper-stratum honeysuckle cover, suggesting that older Amur honeysuckle in a microsite resulted in greater light competition from above for native understory plant species. Beyond increased cover and shading, our results do not provide evidence of duration-related effects from long-term dominance of honeysuckle in our sampled mixed hardwood forest sites.

While negative impacts of invasive species on native communities are well documented, less is known about how these communities respond to the removal of established populations of invasive species. With regard to invasive shrubs, studies examining native community response to removal at scales greater than experimental plots are lacking. We examined short-term effects of removing Lonicera maackii (Amur honeysuckle) and other non-native shrubs on native plant taxa in six mixed-hardwood forests. Each study site contained two 0.64 ha sample areas—an area where all non-native shrubs were removed and a reference area where no treatment was implemented. We sampled vegetation in the spring and summer before and after non-native shrubs were removed. Cover and diversity of native species, and densities of native woody seedlings, increased after shrub removal. However, we also observed significant increases in L. maackii seedling densities and Alliaria petiolata (garlic mustard) cover in removal areas. Changes in reference areas were less pronounced and mostly non-significant. Our results suggest that removing non-native shrubs allows short-term recovery of native communities across a range of invasion intensities. However, successful restoration will likely depend on renewed competition with invasive species that re-colonize treatment areas, the influence of herbivores, and subsequent control efforts.