Wave energy has the potential to contribute in the transition to decarbonized electricity generation. Extracting wave energy might be expected to have ecological impacts on rocky shore intertidal communities where exposure is one of the most important factors determining species structure and composition. With global climatic change, coastal exposure is predicted to increase with greater significant wave height. The wave-exposed west coast of Orkney, Scotland, UK, is the site of pre-commercial wave device testing. Surveys of 39 rocky shore sites along this coast identified key species and abundances, and quantified exposure-modifying topographic variables. A spectral wave model was constructed to compare baseline, wave extraction, climate change, and combined scenarios. Generalized additive modelling was used to describe the relationship between species, topography, and exposure. Results show that individual species differentially respond to exposure changes with 'winners' and 'losers' at site level. Overall, community responses are expected to be far greater following predicted climatic change than to industrial-scale wave energy extraction, depending on spatial scale. In combination, energy extraction may reduce the effects of climate-change-related increases in wave exposure of rocky shores. Predicting how location-specific biotic assemblages respond to changes in wave energy as a result of long-term forcing agents provides a valuable marine resource management tool.

In a world which is 'hanging by a thread', or conversely 'teetering on the brink', where 'humanity stands at the precipice', systems thinking can offer clarity when confronted with the unwitting distraction of cliche riddled aphorisms. By the examination of the earth system, its externalities in relation to economic development and perspectives of our relationship to the global commons within the economy, within government and within the established literature, a series of propositions are developed. Some are used subsequently to offer explanation of current approaches to climate change; others highlight the obvious importance of systems thinking to the engineering professions. Finally, in a brief discussion, these propositions are used syllogistically to suggest that rationalism and universal self-interest will avoid irreversible climate change and its associated environmental apocalypse. Conflicting interests and self-interest, inter alia, within the global system of production and development suggest that the achievement of basic human rights and the UN Sustainable Development Goals, however rational and well supported, will prove rather more intractable.

© 2017 Elsevier Ltd The authors regret that a software error caused incorrect predictions for the effects of tidal turbines in Delft3D. The predictions without turbines are unaffected, as are those from the MIKE 3 model. The overall conclusions of the article remain valid. Figs. 12–15 as published are incorrect. Replacements for Figs. 12–14 are presented here. Following this correction the differences in the effects of energy extraction between the two models are much smaller. As a result the discussion of these differences in Section 6 should be disregarded, and Fig. 15 is no longer required. The authors would like to apologise for any inconvenience caused. The version of the code for adding turbines to Delft3D that is publicly available has been corrected, and anybody using this for their own work is urged to download the latest version. [Figure presented] Fig. 12: (a) 400 turbines in the Inner Sound, viewed through the MIKE Zero GUI; (b) The same 400 turbines represented as porous plates for Delft3D. Higher values of the closs parameter, shown by bluer colours, indicate plates with higher drag. [Figure presented] Fig. 13: Changes in mean current speeds over 28 days as a result of adding turbines. [Figure presented] Fig. 14: Change in mean bed stress magnitude over 28 days as a result of adding turbines, expressed as a proportion of the value without turbines.

The non-statutory pilot regional marine spatial plan for the Pentland Firth and Orkney Waters (PFOW) is a test to establish a precedent for the whole of Scotland. It is a pilot because it precedes and tests implementation of the statutory process for marine planning set out in the Marine (Scotland) Act 2010. It was selected by the government for the pilot because of the high level of existing and proposed marine renewable energy (MRE) development in a relatively pristine area of coastal waters where traditional activities and habitats protection are already important. The PFOW is the first designated ‘Marine Energy Park’ in Scotland. It is under immediate pressure of development and the PFOW plan is already in use in support of the development consenting regime. This case study of the emerging plan identifies issues of generic importance to the planning of marine areas under development pressure in near shore locations. In particular, it highlights issues affecting the relationship between marine and terrestrial planning and the interests of adjacent island and coastal communities. The study concludes that a strong central marine governance regime is developing but that engagement of the local community and accommodation of terrestrial planning interests require further consideration. Full integration between marine and land planning may be unattainable but an equitable working relationship between them is essential. A notable feature of the PFOW plan is rejection of zoning in favour of a more pragmatic approach based on consenting criteria and locational guidance.

Two commercial packages were employed to model tidal turbines in Lashy Sound – a strait in the Orkney Isles of Scotland in which Scotrenewables plans to build a 30MW tidal farm. These two models use different approaches and assumptions, and have historically been used in very different ways at very different resolutions to one another. Recently, both types of model have been used at resolutions in the range 10-100m [1, 2] to model tidal energy extraction.

Ambition to create jobs and economic growth from the vast open spaces of the oceans and seas is made real by new and developing technologies. In the 2010s, renewable energy generated from wind, wave and tide is laying claim to large areas of marine space and driving the search to find new ways to manage ocean and coastal development. Many more activities are expected and precedents are currently being set for the future of marine governance. Several observers have drawn parallels with the development of offshore oil and gas in the 1970s, which also represented a step change in use of the seas and coasts. The change was particularly felt in the Orkney and Shetland archipelagos, at the centre of the North Sea oilfields. Special powers were granted to the county councils here to control development and share in its benefits. This paper compares the oil and renewables industries, separated in time by nearly 40 years, and their influence on adjacent communities. The similarities and differences are identified to test the hypothesis that the 1970s oil model of local participation could be repeated for the development of marine renewables in the 2010s. The conclusion is that the model could well be applied but that the political and policy drivers of today make it unlikely, at least for the time being. Most notably, the change in the role of the public and private sectors and the use of market instruments to achieve national objectives tend to favour a climate of central control.

Harvesting the energy of waves and tides is still the subject of research and development as an increasing number of devices are invented and subjected to test. It is unclear which, if any, of these will ultimately be chosen for commercial deployment. The capacity for research and testing has expanded rapidly into an active industrial sector worth several hundreds of millions of Euros. Preparations for a commercial phase are underway in Scotland with the allocation of seabed leases to developers in the seas around Orkney; just in advance of Scotland's first detailed marine spatial plan which is under preparation in the area. Anxiety to build confidence in a new and nationally important industrial sector conflicts with a plethora of uncertainties about technology and impacts on the natural environment and existing uses. Marine Spatial Planning (MSP) will help to build a new governance structure for marine space but in the Pentland Firth and Orkney Waters (PFOW) area it is struggling to catch up with the pace of events. This paper identifies the political objectives driving development and the impact on decision making in areas under clear and present pressure from new activities. It argues that the PFOW area is of special interest highlighting issues which will be of widespread and generic influence in the future. A governance structure based on central authority in decision making is emerging. Conclusions are drawn about the need for more research into the delegation of marine stewardship powers to local communities.

Many countries now recognise the need for mitigation of climate change induced by human activities and have incorporated renewable energy resources within their energy policy. There are extensive resources of renewable energy within the marine environment and increasing interest in extracting energy from locations with either large tidal range, rapid flow with and without wave interaction, or large wave resources. However, the ecological implications of altering the hydrodynamics of the marine environment are poorly understood. Ecological data for areas targeted for marine renewable developments are often limited, not least because of the considerable challenges to sampling in high energy environments. In order to predict the scale and nature of ecological implications there is a need for greater understanding of the distribution and extent of the renewable energy resource and in turn, of how marine renewable energy installations (MREIs) may alter energy in the environment. Regional ecological implications of a MREI need to be considered against the greater and global ecological threat of climate change. Finally, it is recommended that the identification of species and biotopes susceptible to the removal of hydrokinetic energy could be a suitable strategy for understanding how a MREI may alter flow conditions.

The coastal ocean is the most important zone for the maritime countries for recreation, mineral and energy exploitation, weather forecasting and national security. Understanding of coastal and oceanic processes is mostly based on field measurements and laboratory experiments. Most coastal processes occur over relatively long time spans and have large spatial extents. They also involve or are impacted by a variety of factors such as waves, wind, tide, storm surges, currents, beach sediment properties, etc. Measurements of waves, both on site and in wave flumes, are carried out using different techniques. This article reviews the different technologies available and presently adopted in wave and current measurements. Different instruments for wave and current measurement have its own advantages and disadvantages depending on the applications and needs. A detailed overview of various studies carried out in worldwide locations on wave and current measurements is presented. Various instruments, their application, advantages, disadvantages and accuracy are discussed in this article. It is essential to choose the type of instrument most appropriate to the application, based on the requirements, necessitating a thorough knowledge of the instruments available, the funding and duration of the project. Key words: Measurements, waves, currents, buoys, ADCPs, radars, remote sensing.