The proliferation of drug-resistant bacteria in water poses a significant public health threat. Experimental wastewater from microbiology laboratories and residual fluids in medical catheters are particularly prone to pathogenic bacterial growth and biofilm formation. This challenge requires antibacterial agents that can eliminate pathogenic bacteria with high efficiency. In this study, core-shell Ag@Fe3O4 NPs were synthesized via a straightforward solvothermal method. This structuration minimizes silver ion loss and ensures sustained antibacterial activity through core-shell synergy. Mechanistic studies revealed that Ag@Fe3O4 disrupts biofilm architecture and induces nucleic acid leakage via the synergistic release of Ag+ ions and the generation of reactive oxygen species (ROS). Significantly, Ag@Fe3O4 NPs exhibit superparamagnetic properties and demonstrate a low minimum inhibitory concentration (MIC) of 10 μg/mL. In water treatment simulations, Ag@Fe3O4 NPs maintained a 100% pathogen elimination rate across diverse environmental conditions after 40 magnetic recovery cycles. Furthermore, the Ag@Fe3O4 NPs achieved precise targeting and efficient removal of biofilms in a medical catheter model under magnetic guidance. Ag@Fe3O4 NPs offer an efficient and sustainable solution for eradicating waterborne pathogens and eliminating medical catheter biofilms.

Wastewater from biological research often contains abundant pathogenic bacteria, posing serious environmental and public health risks if discharged without treatment. Current microbial control primarily relies on antibiotics, however, their widespread use has promoted bacterial resistance, greatly reducing treatment efficacy. Furthermore, antibiotic-based methods raise concerns over residual antibiotics in water and high operational costs. To address these limitations, this study developed Na0.55MnO2 & sdot;1.5H2O nanocomposites (Na-Mn-O NC), synthesized from low-cost raw materials, which significantly reduced production costs. These nanocomposites exhibit excellent biocompatibility and potent photothermal antibacterial activity. Under near-infrared (NIR) light irradiation, the temperature of the solution increases significantly with the increase in power density. When the power density reaches 1.3 W/cm2, the temperature rises to 70.4 degrees C. Experimental results show that the Na-Mn-O NC exhibits a pronounced heating effect after 10 min of NIR light exposure and completely inhibits bacterial growth. The photothermal conversion efficiency of the material is calculated to be 36%. Photothermal therapy (PTT) displays outstanding efficacy. Mechanistic investigations indicated that the nanocomposites induce bacterial mortality and biofilm degradation through multiple pathways, including structural damage to the cell envelope, stimulation of reactive oxygen species (ROS) production, and disruption of intracellular redox homeostasis. In simulated pathogen-laden wastewater treatment experiments, Na-Mn-O NC demonstrated outstanding and stable antibacterial performance, achieving complete inhibition of bacterial growth even after 20 cycles of reuse. It can be observed that the manganese ion content in water increased slightly after multiple cycles but remained below the 80 mu g/L health guideline value set by the WHO. Furthermore, the nanocomposites can be easily recovered, mitigating potential environmental risks. This work provides a novel and sustainable strategy for disinfecting biologically contaminated wastewater, leveraging a recyclable, H2O2-independent (No additional H2O2 is required), and dual-modal antibacterial nanoplatform to combat pathogenic bacteria and impede antimicrobial resistance.

The issues of chemical pollution and the spread of pathogens in environments pose a significant threat to public health. Bimetallic nanomaterials that exhibit both photocatalytic performance and antibacterial capabilities have emerged as a research focus. Aiming to achieve precise targeting, effective degradation of organic pollutants, and removal of bacterial biofilms in various pipeline systems, future work will concentrate on developing advanced multifunctional magnetic nanomaterials. The different morphologies of ZnFe2O4 photocatalysts (spherical and cubic) were successfully synthesized to overcome the above problems. The catalysts showed a well-defined structure observed in TEM images and further verified by FTIR, XRD, and XPS characterizations. The prepared ZnFe2O4 exhibits remarkable photocatalytic performance and antibacterial efficacy. Notably, the spherical ZnFe2O4 achieved a Methylene blue (MB) degradation rate of 86.24 % after 90 min under xenon lamp irradiation, and it demonstrated 100 % inhibition against drug-resistant bacterial strains at a concentration of 40 mu g/ mL. The models of factory sewage pool, medical catheters, and microbiology laboratory pipes have demonstrated that cubic ZnFe2O4 can effectively target, degrade organic pollutants, and remove biofilms under the guidance of an external magnetic field. Therefore, a systematic assessment of the comprehensive performance of ZnFe2O4 with different morphologies were evaluated, and an accurate "performance-application" matching model was developed. This provides valuable insights for the degradation of organic pollutants and the removal of biofilms in pipes within complex environments.

The growing threat of multidrug-resistant (MDR) bacterial infections requires novel antimicrobial approaches that bypass traditional resistance mechanisms. Herein, a core–shell Si@C/CoO structure is engineered, featuring a shell of carbon networks that confine quantum cobalt oxides and are supported on silica nanospheres. This novel platform synergistically integrates photothermal therapy and photodynamic therapy antibacterial mechanisms. Leveraging the synergistic interaction between the carbon layer and ultrafine CoO, Si@C/CoO achieves a remarkably high photothermal conversion efficiency (η = 42.65

Electrochemiluminescence (ECL) biosensing requires luminophores with high emission efficiency and favorable interfacial reaction kinetics. Herein, a nanoconfined aggregation-induced emission luminophore, TH-UiO-66-NH2, is constructed by coordinating tetracarboxyl-functionalized tetraphenylethylene (TCTPE) within UiO-66-NH2. The resulting TH-UiO-66-NH2 shows an 8.3-fold enhancement in ECL intensity compared with pristine TCTPE. Mechanistic studies reveal that the rigid UiO-66-NH2 not only enhances the interfacial enrichment and electrochemical activation of K2S2O8, but also regulates the aggregation state of TCTPE within a spatially confined coordination environment, thereby suppressing nonradiative relaxation of the AIE luminophore. Taking advantage of the excellent ECL performance of TH-UiO-66-NH2, a signal "on-off-on" biosensing platform is further developed for carcinoembryonic antigen (CEA) detection. The proposed biosensor shows a linear relationship ranging from 10-13 to 10-7 g mL-1 with detection limit down to 2.138 × 10-14 g mL-1. Moreover, a random forest-assisted machine-learning model further improves the detection accuracy, demonstrating the potential of this intelligent ECL system for highly sensitive CEA detection. This work offers a reliable and intelligent analytical strategy for the precision screening and auxiliary diagnosis of cancer markers.

The skin wound is susceptible to bacterial invasion, which hinders the healing of the wound, especially when infected with multi-drug resistant strains. This demands novel bioactive materials to combat bacterial infections. In this study, gallium oxide nanoparticles (Ga2O3 NPs) were successfully synthesized through high-temperature thermal decomposition, exhibiting excellent biocompatibility and photocatalytic antimicrobial activity. The Ga2O3 NPs were crosslinked into chitosan hydrogel to create a light-responsive multilayered 3D porous hydrogel (Ga2O3 NPs hydrogel) for use in photocatalytic antimicrobial therapy (PCAT). The prepared Ga2O3 NPs hydrogel exhibits broad-spectrum photocatalytic activity and remarkable antibacterial efficacy against E. coli and S. aureus. It effectively eradicates biofilms, promotes reactive oxygen species production, disrupts bacterial cell membranes, and induces nucleic acid leakage, ultimately resulting in bacterial death. Additionally, it exhibits excellent biosafety. Both in vitro pigskin and in vivo mouse wound infection models have confirmed the remarkable efficacy of Ga2O3 NPs hydrogel in PCAT. Notably, Ga2O3 NPs hydrogel created a moist environment for the wound in an MDR S. aureus-infected mouse wound model, demonstrating significant potential to facilitate wound healing and minimize scar formation. This study introduces a novel hydrogel dressing without antibiotic components for resistant bacterial-infected wounds.

Drug-resistant bacterial biofilm infections represent a significant danger to global public health. The efficacy of conventional antibiotics is not satisfactory enough, photothermal therapy (PTT) in combination with chemodynamic therapy (CDT) is an effective antimicrobial strategy. To reduce bacterial resistance performance and enhance antibacterial ability, this project proposes to construct a nanocomposite CuS-CaO2-Res@ZIF-8 formed by photothermite CuS nanoparticles as the core and mesoporous organometallic framework ZIF-8 as the shell. This nanocomposite synergized with the group-sensing inhibitor resveratrol for the acid-induced release of antibacterial components. Ultimately, the targeted disruption of biocoated membranes was achieved by the synergistic action of PTT and CDT. The in vitro/in vivo antimicrobial and antibiofilm activity assays of CuS-CaO2-Res@ZIF-8 were performed to explore its antimicrobial properties. The results indicate that CuS-CaO2-Res@ZIF-8 can effectively achieve bacterial inhibition while avoiding antibiotics. As a powerful agent against biofilm infections, CuS-CaO2-Res@ZIF-8 offers a promising strategy for designing antimicrobial nanomaterials tailored to the unique characteristics of the biofilm microenvironment, demonstrating significant potential for future clinical applications.

The complex pathological microenvironment, characterized by hyperglycemia, chronic inflammation, and infection, significantly impedes diabetic wound healing. Multi-strategy collaboration is expected to improve the complex pathological microenvironment and accelerate diabetic wound healing. This work developed a dynamic borate bond-crosslinked chitosan/polyvinyl alcohol nanohydrogel loaded with glucose oxidase (GOx) and ZnS/Arg@MOF-818 nanoparticles for synergistic therapy via glucose depletion, photothermy, nitric oxide (NO), and hydrogen sulfide (H₂S)-mediated gas therapy. GOx enables glucose depletion, lowering local pH and triggering the on-demand release of ZnS/Arg@MOF-818 nanoparticles, which exhibited a photothermal conversion efficiency of 55 % and outstanding photothermal stability in vitro. The composite nanohydrogel Gel/ZnS/Arg@MOF-818 enabled sustained and stable release of NO/H2S with glucose existent. The synergistic effects of glucose depletion, photothermy, and controlled NO/H₂S release effectively disrupted biofilms, eradicated multidrug-resistant pathogens, reduced inflammation, and promoted angiogenesis. The composite nanohydrogel exhibited 100 % antibacterial efficacy against drug-resistant strains of Staphylococcus aureus, Escherichia coli, and Acinetobacter baumannii in vitro. In vivo, it significantly accelerated diabetic wound healing 98 % within 9 days, accompanied by CD31/VEGF-driven neovascularization, balanced cytokine expression, and organized collagen deposition, without significant systemic toxicity. Therefore, chitosan-based hydrogels crosslinked via borate ester bonds in this study exhibit considerable potential for future clinical applications in the management of chronic wounds.

The proliferation of antibiotic-resistant bacteria (ARB) and pathogens in biomedical wastewater poses a critical global health threat, underscoring the need for antibiotic-free disinfection strategies. Herein, we develop recyclable triethylene glycol-modified superparamagnetic iron oxide nanoparticles (TEG-SPIONs) as an efficient photothermal antibacterial platform. Under near-infrared (NIR) irradiation, TEG-SPIONs exhibit outstanding photothermal performance with a conversion efficiency of 30.44 %, enabling the rapid inactivation of bacteria through synergistic mechanisms, including membrane disruption, ROS generation, and nucleic acid leakage. Moreover, TEG-SPIONs effectively inhibit biofilm formation and disrupt mature biofilms. Their superparamagnetism allows facile magnetic retrieval and reuse, maintaining over 60 % antibacterial activity after 20 cycles, along with excellent colloidal stability for 14 days. Unlike conventional antibiotics, TEG-SPIONs do not cause the development of resistance or secondary pollution. This work highlights the promise of TEG-SPIONs as a sustainable, recyclable nanoplatform for environmental remediation and water purification, offering a practical strategy against antimicrobial resistance.

The overuse of antibiotics leads to bacterial resistance, which involves complex and diverse mechanisms, among which the activation of drug efflux pumps is a key contributing factor. Excessive accumulation of reactive oxygen species (ROS) in inflamed wound tissues further exacerbates this issue by triggering efflux pump activation. To address bacterial resistance, this study aimed to mitigate ROS accumulation, thereby inhibiting efflux pump expression and enhancing antibacterial efficacy. Researchers synthesized MoS2-based nanocomposites (MoS2/ZnO/Cur designated as MZCs) loaded with ZnO and Cur into cross-linked structures using a hydrothermal method and combined them with photothermal therapy (PTT). To enhance functionality, a ROS-responsive hydrogel was developed by conjugating CGG with a ROS-responsive linker (TPA) and integrating the MZCs, yielding MZC@CGG-TPA. Electron microscopy revealed the internal structure of the hydrogel. Antibacterial assays demonstrated that MZC@CGG-TPA achieved inhibition rates exceeding 95% against multidrug-resistant (MDR) Escherichia coli and Staphylococcus aureus, with biofilm clearance rates surpassing 90%. Photothermal performance testing indicated a photothermal conversion efficiency of 47%. Transcriptomic analysis revealed that MZC@CGG-TPA suppressed the expression of channel protein-related genes, downregulated the key regulator gene marA, and inhibited drug efflux pump activity. This enhanced the retention of antibacterial agents within bacterial cells and improved bactericidal efficacy. Under laser irradiation, the MZC@CGG-TPA hydrogel dressing significantly enhanced anti-infection efficacy and accelerated wound healing in an in vivo wound infection model. These findings present an approach for designing advanced nanosystems to effectively combat MDR bacteria.

The misuse of antibiotics has led to the growing problem of multidrug-resistant (MDR) bacteria, and there is still a lack of effective antibacterial agents that can replace antibiotics. Therefore, the design and development of multifunctional nanomaterials with long-term inhibitory effects on drug-resistant bacteria are extremely challenging. In this study, a multifunctional biomimetic self-assembly system, BSA-ZnO&Quercetin, based on bovine serum albumin (BSA), ZnO, and quercetin, was established using a simple and controllable method. The prepared self-assembly system has high stability and biocompatibility, and could fully combine the performance advantages of each component. BSA-ZnO&Quercetin showed excellent broad-spectrum antibacterial activity without inducing bacterial resistance. The related antibacterial mechanism of BSA-ZnO&Quercetin primarily involves biofilm inhibition and destruction, and inducing the production of reactive oxygen species, resulting in the death of the bacteria. The biomimetic self-assembly system BSA-ZnO&Quercetin constructed in this research is expected to replace antibiotics for antibacterial application.

The treatment of multidrug-resistant (MDR) infections remains a major challenge faced by humans. Effective phototherapy, such as photothermal and photodynamic therapies, can inhibit drug-resistant bacteria and is considered an innovative treatment approach that can replace antibiotics. In this study, molybdenum disulfide (MoS2) nanoflowers, photosensitizer chlorin-e6 (Ce6), autogenic oxygen nanocalcium oxide (CaO2), and MOF material (ZIF-8) were used to construct MoS2-Ce6-CaO2@ZIF-8 (MCC@ZIF-8), an autogenic oxygen multifunctional nanosystem. This system exhibited photothermal and photodynamic antibacterial activities in the active near-infrared (808 nm) and visible (660 nm) regions of the spectrum. The experimental results indicated that the nanosystem was hexahedral, its zeta potential was +38 ± 1.1 mV, particle size was approximately 310 nm, and photothermal conversion efficiency was 47%. In the experiment, this nanosystem showed >95% antibacterial effect against MDR Escherichia coli and Staphylococcus aureus. Furthermore, it could inhibit the expression of bacterial base excision repair, tyrosine metabolism, glutathione metabolism, and other genes. The hydrogel system MCC@ZIF-8@BBR/CS/β-GP (MCC@ZIF-8@BCβ) further promoted wound healing in the infected mice. These findings confirm the significant antibacterial effect of the autogenic oxygen multifunctional nanocomposite and lay the foundation for the practical application of this nanosystem in clinical practice.

Wound infections caused by surgery, chronic ulcers, or trauma have been a challenge for clinicians, especially multiple resistant bacteria induced by the misuse of antibiotics, which has increased the risk of bacterial infection. It is very urgent to design and develop antimicrobial materials with potential for clinical application against drug-resistant bacterial infections. In this study, a photothermal montmorillonite-chitosan hydrogel system (MNT-CS Gel) was fabricated as a photothermal antimicrobial dressing. This study found for the first time that montmorillonite (MNT) has good photothermal properties and photothermal conversion efficiency under near-infrared (NIR) light, and on this basis, its application research was carried out. The MNT possesses broadspectrum antibacterial activity with significant inhibitory effects against E. coli and S. aureus, excellent photo-thermal stability under NIR light. And all the performances were improved after combining with CS-Gel, especially in bacterial adsorption capacity and photothermal performance. Notably, MNT-CS Gel was used as a photothermal antibacterial agent for the first time, and the antibacterial effects in vitro and their mechanisms have been systematically investigated. It was found that the MNT-CS Gel had significant inhibitory and destructive effects on bacteria in an in vitro pigskin model. The MNT-CS Gel could adsorb the bacteria strongly, inhibit bacterial biofilm formation, induced the generation of ROS, destroy the structure of bacteria, and cause the leakage of nucleic acids. The MNT-CS Gel demonstrated good photothermal antimicrobial properties, suggesting that the MNT-CS Gel has potential for clinical hygiene applications.

Waterborne microbial contamination represents a significant global environmental challenge. Microorganisms can induce water pollution, precipitating infectious disease outbreaks and posing a substantial threat to human health. Currently, the excessive use of conventional antibiotics has resulted in the emergence of bacterial resistance, posing a challenge to the design and development of antimicrobial agents with high antibacterial efficacy in diverse water such as rivers, lakes, and wastewater from microbiology laboratories. Bimetallic nanomaterials, that amalgamate the distinctive characteristics of diverse metals, are garnering attention due to their synergistic properties. In this study, PVP-FeMo2S3 (PVP: Polyvinylpyrrolidone) and PVP-ZnMo2S3 nanocrystals were synthesized by a high-temperature reaction. The prepared nanocrystals exhibited excellent biocompatibility, regular morphology, long-term stability, and remarkable antibacterial effects. The bacterial biofilms could be eradicated by the combination of photothermal (PTT) and photodynamic synergistic effects of PVP-FeMo2S3 and PVP-ZnMo2S3 nanocrystals. PVP-ZnMo2S3 nanocrystals exhibited enhanced PTT conversion efficiency for water treatment. Remarkably, even after 20 cycles of recycling, PVP-ZnMo2S3 retained substantial antibacterial efficacy. The excellent biosafety of PVP-ZnMo2S3 further guarantees the safety of water quality post-treatment. Thus, PVP-ZnMo2S3 bimetallic nanocrystals can serve as a novel antimicrobial agent for the treatment of microbial contamination in water. This study offers a potential strategy to mitigate secondary water pollution and prevent the development of drug resistance among pathogenic microorganisms.

Bacterial infections are major challenges in global public health currently, it is particularly important to develop novel, efficient and environment-friendly antibacterial methods. In this study, PEG and PEI co-modified superparamagnetic iron oxide nanoparticles (PEG/PEI-SPIONs) with high crystallinity were prepared by ultra-simple high-temperature thermal decomposition reaction. Modification with PEG and PEI enhanced the water solubility and stability of the SPIONs. The experimental results showed that PEG/PEI-SPIONs exhibited good photocatalytic inhibitory effects against S. aureus and E. coli, and a dose-dependent antibacterial activity. The antibacterial activity of PEG/PEI-SPIONs were significantly enhanced under xenon lamp irradiation. The main antibacterial mechanisms of PEG/PEI-SPIONs primarily involve biofilm inhibition and destruction, and inducing the production of reactive oxygen species, resulting in the death of the bacteria. The PEG/PEI-SPIONs constructed in this study are expected to replace antibiotics in the fight against bacterial infections.

Multidrug-resistant bacterial infections have emerged as a global public health crisis due to antibiotic misuse. In this study, we develop a layer-restacked 3D Ti3C2 nanostructure utilizing ice-templating. This nanostructure exhibits outstanding hydrophilicity, biocompatibility, and stability, as well as enhanced absorption, extinction coefficient, and photothermal conversion efficiency. Additionally, the layer-restacked 3D Ti3C2 nanostructure demonstrates excellent antibacterial activity against MDR Escherichia coli and MDR Staphylococcus aureus irradiated by 808 nm near-infrared light (NIR). Specifically, the mechanism of photothermal action against multidrug-resistant bacteria involves structural damage to the bacterial membranes, leading to the leakage of bacterial contents after layer-restacked 3D Ti3C2 nanostructures adhered under NIR irradiation. The results of transcriptome analysis show that the 3D Ti3C2 nanostructure regulates the membrane transporters and membrane transporter proteins on the bacterial cell membrane as well as the activities of enzymes associated with them, which in turn affect the metabolic processes of organic acids and other organic substances in the bacterial cell. The DNA-binding transcriptional activator EvgA is significantly downregulated, which may play a crucial role in inhibiting the emergence of drug resistance in bacteria when exposed to the layer-restacked 3D Ti3C2 nanostructure. The layer-restacked 3D Ti3C2 nanostructure is an effective photothermal antimicrobial nanostructure against multidrug-resistant bacteria.

Antibiotics, a milestone invention in modern medicine, have significantly improved human quality of life and serve as a primary weapon against bacterial infections. However, antibiotic abuse has led to the emergence and worsening of bacterial resistance, now a major global public health challenge. Therefore, the efficient use of nanoscale antimicrobial peptides (APs) as therapeutic and diagnostic agents offers a novel strategy to replace conventional antibiotics. In this study, we innovatively combined AP with manganese dioxide (MnO2) and zeolitic imidazolate framework-8 (ZIF-8) to develop a novel composite: ZIF-8-encapsulated and AP-loaded MnO2 (AP-MnO2@ZIF-8). This composite exhibited superior properties, including enhanced biocompatibility, excellent aqueous stability, and increased antibacterial activity. Both in vitro and in vivo AP-MnO2@ZIF-8 demonstrated potent efficacy against multidrug-resistant (MDR) Escherichia coli (E. coli) and Staphylococcus aureus (S. aureus). Its minimum inhibitory concentrations (MICs) were 20 μg/ml for E. coli and 39 μg/ml for S. aureus. Furthermore, colony-forming unit (CFU) assays showed that 150-μg/ml AP-MnO2@ZIF-8 reduced bacterial survival below 5

To address the growing threat of drug-resistant bacteria and their biofilm-associated infections, we developed molybdenum disulfide (MoS2) nanoparticles coated with antimicrobial peptides (AMPs). The MoS2/AMP composite nanoparticles, synthesized through electrostatic phase interaction, maintained an impressive photothermal-conversion efficiency of 32.3%. The minimum inhibitory concentrations of the MoS2/AMP nanoparticles against multidrug-resistant Escherichia coli and Staphylococcus aureus were approximately 78 and 64 mu g/mL, respectively, under 808 nm near-infrared light irradiation for 5 min. Furthermore, around 90% of the biofilm was effectively ablated with 128 mu g/mL of the composite nanoparticles under the same irradiation conditions. These composite nanoparticles demonstrated remarkable antibacterial and biofilm-eradication capabilities by harnessing the united effects of photothermal action and AMPs. Hemolysis and cytotoxicity assays showed that AMP-coated MoS2 significantly diminished the hemolytic activity and cytotoxicity associated with AMP. This work suggests a potentially effective strategy for facilitating the commercial application of AMPs, and the composite nanoparticles MoS2/AMP hold considerable promise for antibacterial treatment of chronic infected wounds, biofilm elimination, and the mitigation of antibiotic resistance.

Today, bacterial infections have jumped to an extremely critical health crisis and have become one of the most pressing health threats. 10 million people will die per year because of bacterial infections by 2050. There is an urgent need to develop a new antibacterial strategy to deal with bacterial infections. In this study, PEG-modified superparamagnetic iron oxide nanoparticles (PEG-SPIONs) were prepared using an ultra-straightforward high thermal decomposition method. The synthesized PEG-SPIONs showed excellent biocompatibility, stability, superparamagnetic, and photocatalytic properties. It is worth noting that PEG-SPIONs have excellent photocatalytic antimicrobial activity against E. coli and S. aureus. In addition, the antimicrobial mechanism revealed that PEG-SPIONs could inhibit the formation of bacterial biofilms and cause disruption of bacterial biofilms, the crumple or rupture of bacteria, triggering inclusion leakage and Reactive Oxygen Species production, while avoiding inducing drug resistance. In conclusion, PEG-SPIONs have great potential for application as an efficient photocatalytic antibacterial material. The synthesis (a) and antibacterial schematic diagram (b) of PEG-SPIONs. We prepared PEG-modified superparamagnetic iron oxide nanoparticles (PEG-SPIONs) using an ultra-simple pyrolysis method. The synthesized PEG-SPIONs showed good biocompatibility, stability, superparamagnetic, and photocatalytic properties. It is worth noting that PEG-SPIONs have excellent photocatalytic antimicrobial activity against E. coli and S. aureus. In addition, the antimicrobial mechanism revealed that PEG-SPIONs could inhibit the formation of bacterial biofilms and cause disruption of bacterial biofilms, the crumple or rupture of bacteria, leading to leakage of inclusions and the generation of reactive oxygen species (ROS) without inducing the drug resistance of bacteria. In conclusion, the prepared PEG-SPIONs are promising for photocatalytic synergistic antimicrobial applications. This work serves as a reference for developing various functional photocatalytic nanomaterials for exploitation strategies and applications.