Technical advances in landscape visualization have tended to, and still do, outstrip the understanding of how best to use them in practical planning contexts. This paper draws upon recent literature and experience gained during a number of projects to address three key questions regarding the most effective use of 3D landscape visualizations for communication purposes. In essence these are "when?" (to use them), "what?" (to include) and "how?" (to display them). Three main visualization options (rendered still images, animations and real-time models) are compared and particular constraints and strengths are discussed. In addition, an evaluation is made of the ability of the information presented in landscape visualizations to meet criteria of credibility, salience and legitimacy when communicating with stakeholders. Closing guidance is given on the use of visualizations in landscape planning and suggestions regarding future research needs are made. These focus on the need for applications of 3D visualization techniques to be more systematically evaluated, ideally as part of landscape planning exercises where the benefits of particular approaches for different purposes and audiences are examined across all stages of the decision-making process. (C) 2015 Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved.

Public awareness and understanding of ecosystem services has tended to lag behind the increasing use of the concept in landscape planning and design. Augmented reality tools on mobile devices such as smartphones have the potential to help communicate the provision of ecosystem services in different landscape settings and enhance the scope for more participatory landscape governance. This paper discusses the development of such a smartphone-based tool and examines its merits compared to a more traditional paper leaflet in the context of an evaluation by members of the public attending short organised walks in urban and rural river landscapes in Norfolk, UK.

This paper examines the use of Google Maps‐based tools to collect spatial responses from participants during academic research surveys conducted via the internet. Google Maps is regularly used for presenting data to users, but it is less common to ask users to provide their own spatial information as a questionnaire response. Using two recent examples from the University of East Anglia, the article discusses the online survey context and Google Maps’ place within it, issues surrounding the technical implementation of these tools, and processing and use of the collected data. It also considers how this type of methodology can be recorded in a manner compatible with the concept of reproducible research, and concludes with considerations for future researchers wishing to employ similar methods.

Public attitudes were assessed towards two dedicated biomass crops - Miscanthus and Short Rotation Coppice (SRC), particularly regarding their visual impacts in the landscape. Results are based on responses to photographic and computer-generated images as the crops are still relatively scarce in the landscape. A questionnaire survey indicated little public concern about potential landscape aesthetics but more concern about attendant built infrastructure. Focus group meetings and interviews indicated support for biomass end uses that bring direct benefits to local communities. Questions arise as to how well the imagery used was able to portray the true nature of these tall, dense, perennial plants but based on the responses obtained and given the caveat that there was limited personal experience of the crops, it appears unlikely that wide-scale planting of biomass crops will give rise to substantial public concern in relation to their visual impact in the landscape.

This paper examines the use of Google Maps-based tools to collect spatial responses from participants during academic research surveys conducted via the internet. Google Maps is regularly used for presenting data to users, but it is less common to ask users to provide their own spatial information as a questionnaire response. Using two recent examples from the University of East Anglia, the article discusses the online survey context and Google Maps’ place within it, issues surrounding the technical implementation of these tools, and processing and use of the collected data. It also considers how this type of methodology can be recorded in a manner compatible with the concept of reproducible research, and concludes with considerations for future researchers wishing to employ similar methods.

Virtual Realit y Modelling Language (VRML) is an open standard for 3D m ult im edia and shared virtual worlds on the I nternet . A VRML ‘world’ consist s of a series of files that together describe the geom et ry and at t ributes of objects and terrain in a 3D scene. There are now several GI S program s with the capabilit y to generate VRML from digital m ap databases, and this technical innovat ion provides an efficient m eans of generat ing landscape visualisat ions that can be viewed and interacted with using just a standard web browser. Such a developm ent also has considerable im plicat ions for increasing public part icipat ion in landscape planning issues.

Angela Karp, Alison J. Haughton, David A. Bohan, Andrew A. Lovett, Alan J. Bond , Trudie Dockerty, Gilla Sünnenberg, Jon W. Finch, Rufus B. Sage, Katy J. Appleton, Andrew B. Riche, Mark D. Mallott, Victoria E. Mallott, Mark D. Cunningham, Suzanne J. Clark and Martin M. Turner Centre for Bioenergy and Climate Change and 1b Centre for Mathematical and Computational Biology, Rothamsted Research, West Common Harpenden, Hertfordshire, AL5 2JQ, UK; School of Environmental Sciences, University of East Anglia, Norwich, NR4 7TJ, UK; Centre for Ecology and Hydrology, Maclean Building, Benson Lane, Crowmarsh Gifford, Wallingford, Oxfordshire, OX10 8BB, UK; Game and Wildlife Conservation Trust, Fordingbridge, Hampshire, SP5 1EF, UK; Department of Geography, University of Exeter, Laver Building, New North Road, Exeter, Devon, EX4 4QE, UK

This paper describes and evaluates the application of the interactive landscape visualisation system Biosphere3D in a case study of cliff erosion in Norfolk, on the eastern coast of England. The study builds upon previous work on coastal zone management by the Tyndall Centre for Climate Change Research at the University of East Anglia. Biosphere3D is an open-source system, which supports multiple scales on a virtual globe, loads GIS data at runtime, and focuses on real-time rendering of vegetation and foreground detail. The 3D landscape model has been developed by using scientific modelling data on cliff retreat to define changes in digital elevation models and then incorporating other spatially referenced content to represent natural and man-made features. We compare the use of Biosphere 3D with previously-employed visualisation techniques and discuss the requirements of digital globes to support more convincing depiction of local visual landscape impacts of global change.

The Water4All project funded by the EU InterregIIIB programme aimed to demonstrate groundwater protection in the context of spatial planning and the implementation of the EU Water Framework Directive. Through a series of workshops, the four partner countries (Denmark, Germany, the Netherlands and the UK) developed a handbook containing an approach for risk-based land and water management to reduce diffuse pollution of groundwater from agricultural sources. Best practice guidelines were catalogued as a matrix of compensated and non-compensated ‘soft’ to ‘hard’ measures and were supported by illustrative case studies. The Water4All project also showed that spatially targeted measures can have wider benefits as part of a ‘whole landscape’ approach to planning and management. As an example, this paper explores a set of theoretical land-use scenarios, developed in consultation with stakeholders, which could potentially decrease nitrate concentrations in the regionally important Lincolnshire Limestone aquifer in eastern England. The results of a combined export coefficient and numerical groundwater modelling approach showed that a decrease in groundwater nitrate concentrations can be achieved over several decades with the implementation of a groundwater protection zone in which there is a significant element of land conversion from arable to woodland and grass. Hence, a long-term commitment to land management is required if the alternative and expensive end-of-pipe water treatment is to be avoided.

Environmental applications have long been a core use of GIS. However, the effectiveness of GIS-based methods depends on the decision-making frameworks and contexts within which they are employed. GIS for Environmental Decision-Making takes an interdisciplinary look at the capacities of GIS to integrate, analyze, and display data on which decisions

The future evolution of our agricultural landscapes and Countryside is the subject of considerable debate and policy discussion, alongside which is an increasing emphasis on the inclusion of public consultation and participation within planning and decision making systems. However, communicating different proposed policy options in a manner that facilitates informed decisions from stakeholders can be far from straightforward. This is particularly true with more abstract and uncertain issues such as potential impacts of climate change.Scenarios depicting the possible Outcomes of policy options provide a useful tool to evaluate the potential consequences of choices. This paper documents an approach to constructing scenarios that can incorporate potential climate change impacts. and reflect the uncertainty in climate change projections due to different environmental policies. It describes the construction of scenarios using the Humberhead Levels in the UK as a case study and portrays the scenarios using two forms of visualisation-digital photo-montage and a real-time landscape model. The method is equally applicable to other study areas across Europe where suitable data are available. Preliminary reactions from an audience to scenario images are discussed, as well as the technical and practical challenges Of using visualisation techniques to support decision making. (c) 2005 Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved.