Zooplankton community structure varies among distinct water masses and can be highly temporally dynamic, with patterns reflecting seasonal, interannual, and decadal changes in food webs. The seasonal dynamics of zooplankton communities in waters east of the Otago peninsula (New Zealand), and their associations to the region's water masses, have not been investigated in detail since the 1960s. The current study was conducted along the Munida Time Series Transect, a 65-km transect that runs perpendicular to the coast. The transect crosses four distinct water masses: Neritic, Subtropical, Subtropical frontal zone, and Sub Antarctic waters, all with distinct temperature, salinity, and nutrient characteristics. Samples were taken from the epipelagic (<200 m) along 8 stations every 2 months between November 2017 to September 2018, which coincided with a strong marine heatwave in January 2018. We found significant differences in community distributions of zooplankton both among water masses and seasons. Biomass dominants were typically copepods, but other groups - such as appendicularians or thecosome pteropods - dominated at certain times or locations. These results provide the first detailed records of zooplankton distribution in this complex oceanographic region in 50 years and highlight the importance of monitoring zooplankton in dynamic locations in the face of climate change.

‘Candidatus Endonucleobacter’ infects the nuclei of deep-sea mussels but it was unknown how they can prevent apoptosis of the host. A new study by Porras and colleagues, published in Nature Microbiology, suggests that the bacterium upregulates host-derived apoptosis inhibitors and genes for digesting sugars, lipids and amino acids acquired through horizontal gene transfer from the mussels.

Although the Antarctic lakes are of great importance for the climate and the carbon cycle, the lithological influences on the input of elements that are necessary for phytoplankton in lakes have so far been insufficiently investigated. To address this issue, we analyzed phytoplankton cell concentrations and chemical compositions of water samples from lakes, ponds and a stream on Fildes and Ardley Islands of King George Island in the South Shetland Archipelago. Furthermore, lake sediments, as well as soil and rock samples collected from the littoral zone were analyzed for their mineralogical/petrographic composition and pollutant contents of polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs). In addition, leaching experiments were carried out to with the lithologic samples to investigate the possible changes in pH, alkalinity, macronutrients (N, P, Si), micronutrients (e.g. Fe, Zn, Cu, Mn), anions (S, F, Br), and other cations (e.g. Na, K, Mg, Ca, Al, Ti, V, Cr, Co, Ni, As, Se, Pb, Sb, Mo, Ag, Cd, Sn, Ba, Tl, B). Our results showed that phytoplankton levels varied between 15 and 206 cells/mL. Chlorophyll-a concentrations showed high correlations with NH4, NO3. The low levels of PO4 (<0.001 mg/L) indicated a possible P-limitation in the studied lakes. The composition of rock samples ranged from basalt to trachybasalt with variable major oxide (e.g. SiO2, Na2O and K2O) contents and consist mainly quartz, albite, calcite, dolomite and zeolite minerals. The concentrations of total PAHs were below the toxic threshold levels (9.55-131.25 ng g-1 dw). Leaching experiments with lithologic samples indicated major increase in pH (up to 9.77 ± 0.02) and nutrients, especially PO4 (1.03 ± 0.04 mg/L), indicating a strong P-fertilization impact in increased melting scenarios. Whereas, toxic elements such as Pb, Cu, Cd, Al and As were also released from the lithology, which may reduce the phytoplankton growth.

Low bioavailability of the vital element iron (Fe) limits primary production in large regions of the Southern Ocean, thus impacting phytoplankton community structures. Primary productivity seems to be particularly sensitive to the reduced form of iron (Fe(II)), which is thought to be the most readily bioavailable redox form of Fe in the ocean. Here, we investigated the impact of temperature (3 °C, 5 °C and 7 °C) and Fe(II) additions (+ 5 nM) on growth of two Southern Ocean phytoplankton species Fragilariopsis cylindrus and Phaeocystis antarctica in coastal and open ocean water. At all tested temperatures, growth rates of P. antarctica were significantly higher with added iron, compared to the treatments without added iron in both waters. Temperature only had a significant effect on the growth rate of this species when it was raised to 7 °C in all treatments. For F. cylindrus , growth rates only significantly increased with iron addition at 7 °C in both water types. Temperature did not affect the growth rate of F. cylindrus except for a significant reduction without iron addition at 7 °C in coastal water. These results highlight the complex interactions between Fe bioavailability and temperature on Southern Ocean phytoplankton growth. Thus, certain Southern Ocean phytoplankton species may have higher growth rates in regions of the ocean that will warm the most and possibly experience greater Fe supply under future climate conditions, such as coastal regions. This may result in changes in phytoplankton community structures with implications for carbon sequestration efficiency under future climate conditions.

Abstract The impacts of large terrestrial volcanic eruptions are apparent from satellite monitoring and direct observations1,2. However, more than three quarters of all volcanoes worldwide lie submerged beneath the ocean and the risks they pose to people and infrastructure remain poorly understood due to inaccessibility and a lack of detailed observations before and after eruptions3. Here, comparing data acquired in 2015-20174,5 and three months after the January 2022 eruption of Hunga Tonga Hunga Ha’apai, we document the wide-reaching and diverse impacts of the largest seaborne volcanic eruption in nearly 150 years6. Almost 10 km3 of seafloor material was removed during the eruption, most of which was redeposited within 20 km of the caldera by long run-out pyroclastic currents. These powerful currents damaged seafloor cables over a length of >100 km, reshaped the seafloor, and caused mass-mortality of seafloor life. Biological seafloor communities that survived the eruption were only observed where local topography provided a physical barrier to pyroclastic currents (e.g., on nearby seamounts). While the longer-term consequences of such a large eruption for human, ecological and climatic systems are emerging, we expect that these previously-undocumented refugia will play a key role in longer-term ecosystem recovery7–9.

The impacts of large terrestrial volcanic eruptions are apparent from satellite monitoring and direct observations. However, more than three quarters of all volcanic outputs worldwide lie submerged beneath the ocean, and the risks they pose to people, infrastructure, and benthic ecosystems remain poorly understood due to inaccessibility and a lack of detailed observations before and after eruptions. Here, comparing data acquired between 2015 - 2017 and 3 months after the January 2022 eruption of Hunga Volcano, we document the far-reaching and diverse impacts of one of the most explosive volcanic eruptions ever recorded. Almost 10 km 3 of seafloor material was removed during the eruption, most of which we conclude was redeposited within 20 km of the caldera by long run-out seafloor density currents. These powerful currents damaged seafloor cables over a length of >100 km, reshaped the seafloor, and caused mass-mortality of seafloor life. Biological (mega-epifaunal invertebrate) seafloor communities only survived the eruption where local topography provided a physical barrier to density currents (e.g., on nearby seamounts). While the longer-term consequences of such a large eruption for human, ecological and climatic systems are emerging, we expect that these previously-undocumented refugia will play a key role in longer-term ecosystem recovery.

Carotenoids, one of the most widespread pigments, are becoming increasingly important for humans because of various applications in human foods and animal feeds. Rising consumer awareness about the potential health benefits of carotenoids and the increasing interest in natural food products have benefited the carotenoid industry. Microalgae are recognised as one of the most promising organisms for the commercial and sustainable production of carotenoids; however, the costs for the natural production of carotenoids are much higher than those for chemical production. Light quantity and quality play a crucial role in the biosynthesis of carotenoids. Hence, optimising light parameters is essential for the efficiency and reliability of carotenoid production. This review evaluates the importance of the various aspects of light, specifically light quality and quantity, in the synthesis of carotenoids in algae and discusses why light should be considered a critical factor in the industrial-scale production of carotenoids from algal cultures.

Fatty acids (FA), especially polyunsaturated fatty acids (PUFA), are key biomolecules involved in immune responses, reproduction, and membrane fluidity. PUFA in marine environments are synthesized exclusively by primary producers. Therefore the FA composition of these organisms at the base of the food web (i.e., phytoplankton) and their primary consumers (i.e., zooplankton) are important determinants of the health and productivity of entire ecosystems as they are transferred to higher trophic levels. However, environmental conditions such as seawater pH and temperature, which are already changing in response to climate change and predicted to continue to change in the future, can affect the FA composition of phytoplankton and zooplankton at both the organismal and community level. During a 20 day mesocosm experiment, we tested the effect of ocean acidification alone and in combination with ocean warming on 1) the fatty acid composition of a natural prey community for zooplankton (i.e. phytoplankton and microzooplankton), 2) the fatty acid composition of zooplankton, and 3) the relationship between prey and consumer fatty acid compositions in coastal waters. Significant effects of the climate stressors were not detected in the fatty acid composition of the prey or the relationship between diet and consumer fatty acids. A significant decrease in C18:4n-3 (stearidonic acid) was observed in the zooplankton but not their diet, but understanding the mechanism behind this decrease and its potential biological implications requires further investigation. These results highlight the importance of multistressor investigations on dynamics and variability contained within natural coastal plankton communities.

Organic ligands play a key role in the marine biogeochemical cycle of copper (Cu), a bio-essential element, regulating its solubility and bioavailability. However, the sources, abundance, and distribution of these ligands are still poorly understood. In this study, we examined vertical Cu speciation profiles from the South-East Atlantic (GEOTRACES section GA08). Profiles were collected from a range of ocean conditions, including the Benguela upwelling region, the oligotrophic South Atlantic Gyre, and the Congo River outflow. In general, the lack of a significant correlation between most of the parameters assessed here with Cu speciation data obscures the provenance of Cu-binding ligands, suggesting that Cu speciation in the South-East Atlantic is influenced by a complex interplay between biotic and abiotic processes. Nevertheless, the total dissolved Cu (CuT) illustrated an allochthonous origin in the working area, while Cu-binding ligands showed both an allochthonous and a biogenic, autochthonous origin. Pigment concentrations showed that the phylogeography of different microorganisms influenced the spatial features of the Cu-binding ligand pool in the South-East Atlantic. Allochthonous Cu-binding ligand sources in the upper water column are likely associated with dissolved organic matter which originated from the Congo River and the Benguela upwelling system. Deep water ligand sources could include refractory dissolved organic carbon (DOC), resuspended benthic inputs, and lateral advected inputs from the shelf margin. The degradation of L1-type ligands and/or siderophores in low oxygen conditions may also be a source of L2-type ligands in the deep. Free Cu ion levels (1.7 to 156 fM), the biologically available form of CuT, were below the putative biolimiting threshold of many marine organisms. Two classes of ligands were found in this study with total ligand concentrations ([LT]) ranging from 2.5 to 283.0 nM and conditional stability constants (logKCuL, Cu2+cond) ranging from 10.7 to 14.6. The Cu speciation values were spatially variable across the three subregions, suggesting that biogeochemical processes and sources strongly influence Cu speciation.

Human activities are rapidly changing the structure and function of coastal marine ecosystems. Large-scale replacement of kelp forests and coral reefs with turf algal mats is resulting in homogenous habitats that have less ecological and human value. Ocean acidification has strong potential to substantially favour turf algae growth, which led us to examine the mechanisms that stabilise turf algal states. Here we show that ocean acidification promotes turf algae over corals and macroalgae, mediating new habitat conditions that create stabilising feedback loops (altered physicochemical environment and microbial community, and an inhibition of recruitment) capable of locking turf systems in place. Such feedbacks help explain why degraded coastal habitats persist after being initially pushed past the tipping point by global and local anthropogenic stressors. An understanding of the mechanisms that stabilise degraded coastal habitats can be incorporated into adaptive management to better protect the contribution of coastal systems to human wellbeing.

Biofilms harbour a wealth of microbial diversity and fulfil key functions in coastal marine ecosystems. Elevated carbon dioxide (CO2) conditions affect the structure and function of biofilm communities, yet the ecological patterns that underpin these effects remain unknown. We used high-throughput sequencing of the 16S and 18S rRNA genes to investigate the effect of elevated CO2 on the early successional stages of prokaryotic and eukaryotic biofilms at a CO2 seep system off Shikine Island, Japan. Elevated CO2 profoundly affected biofilm community composition throughout the early stages of succession, leading to greater compositional homogeneity between replicates and the proliferation of the potentially harmful algae Prymnesium sp. and Biddulphia biddulphiana. Species turnover was the main driver of differences between communities in reference and high CO2 conditions, rather than differences in richness or evenness. Our study indicates that species turnover is the primary ecological pattern that underpins the effect of elevated CO2 on both prokaryotic and eukaryotic components of biofilm communities, indicating that elevated CO2 conditions represent a distinct niche selecting for a distinct cohort of organisms without the loss of species richness.

Ocean acidification (OA) can negatively affect early-life stages of marine organisms, with the key processes of larval settlement and metamorphosis potentially vulnerable to reduced seawater pH. Settlement success depends strongly on suitable substrates and environmental cues, with marine biofilms as key settlement inducers for a range of marine invertebrate larvae. This study experimentally investigated (1) how seawater pH determines growth and community composition of marine biofilms, and (2) whether marine biofilms developed under different pH conditions can alter settlement success in the New Zealand serpulid polychaete Galeolaria hystrix. Biofilms were developed under six pH(T) treatments (spanning from 7.0 to 8.1 [ambient]) in a flow-through system for up to 14 months. Biofilms of different ages (7, 10 and 14 months) were used to assay successful settlement of competent G. hystrix larvae reared under ambient conditions. Biofilm microbiomes were characterized through amplicon sequencing of the small subunit ribosomal rRNA gene (16S and 18S). Biofilm community composition was stable over time within each pH treatment and biofilm age did not affect larval settlement selectivity. Seawater pH treatment strongly influenced biofilm community composition, as well as subsequent settlement success when biofilms were presented to competent Galeolaria larvae. Exposure to biofilms incubated under OA-treatments caused a decrease in larval settlement of up to 40% compared to the ambient treatments. We observed a decrease in settlement on biofilms relative to ambient pH for slides incubated at pH 7.9 and 7.7. This trend was reversed at pH 7.4, resulting in high settlement, comparable to ambient biofilms. Settlement decreased on biofilms from pH 7.2, and no settlement was observed on biofilms from pH 7.0. For the first time, we show that long-term incubation of marine biofilms under a wide range of reduced seawater pH treatments can alter marine biofilms in such a way that settlement success in marine invertebrates can be compromised.

The Subantarctic zone is one of the largest High-Nutrient Low-Chlorophyll zones of the Southern Ocean. Despite widespread iron limitation, phytoplankton accumulation (chlorophyll a (chla) > 0.3 mg m(-3)) often occurs near islands and bathymetric features such as on the Campbell Plateau, southeast of New Zealand. To investigate the processes responsible for localized increases in chla commonly observed by satellites, we characterized phytoplankton biomass structure, production, and microzooplankton grazing on Campbell Plateau and surrounding waters in austral autumn (March 2017). Chla on the plateau tended to be higher, more variable (0.52 +/- 0.38 mg chla m(-3), mean +/- standard deviation), and characterized by larger phytoplankton forms (22 +/- 27%chla > 20 mu m) than surrounding waters (0.29 +/- 0.12 mg chla m(-3), 5 +/- 2%). The increased contribution of diatoms, together with higher photosystem II maximum photochemical efficiency (Fv/Fm = 0.45 +/- 0.05) and lower effective absorption cross-section (sigma(PSII) = 774 +/- 90 angstrom RCII-1) on the plateau, suggests an alleviation of iron stress relative to surrounding waters (Fv/Fm= 0.37 +/- 0.04, sigma(PSII) = 974 +/- 89 angstrom RCII-1). Phytoplankton growth (mu 0 = 0.42 +/- 0.20 day(-1)) and production rates (6.1 +/- 3.2 mg Cm-3 day(-1)) were also higher compared to surrounding waters (0.27 +/- 0.04 day(-1), 3.5 +/- 1.9 mg C m(-3) day(-1)). While microzooplankton grazing (g = 0.28 +/- 0.18 day(-1)) balanced phytoplankton growth off the plateau (g:mu(0) = 1.13 +/- 0.18), the imbalance observed on Campbell Plateau (g = 0.25 +/- 0.25 day(-1)) allowed a substantial proportion of primary production to escape microzooplankton grazing control (g:mu(0) = 0.48 +/- 0.31). Overall, the degree of coupling tended to decrease with the depth of the mixed layer (R-2 > 0.6, p < 0.001). We hypothesize that the entrainment of deeper water into the mixed layer regulates the onset and fate of the autumn bloom by altering nutrient supply and microzooplankton grazing pressure. Plain Language Summary This study investigates controls on phytoplankton production processes in the Subantarctic region of the Southern Ocean. Low iron concentrations prevailing in this region limit phytoplankton growth and production rates, while phytoplankton biomass is further controlled by microzooplankton grazing. Despite these constraints, phytoplankton can thrive and accumulate, at least transiently, on nearby bathymetric features. We found that phytoplankton accumulation commonly observed in austral autumn on Campbell Plateau, southeast of New Zealand, presents floristic and physiological characteristics consistent with an alleviation of nutrient/iron stress relative to waters surrounding the plateau. While microzooplankton grazing balanced phytoplankton growth off the plateau, both processes tended to decouple on the plateau, which allowed a substantial proportion of phytoplankton production to escape microzooplankton control and phytoplankton biomass to accumulate. Overall, the net growth rate resulting from this (im)balance tended to increase with the depth of the upper mixed layer of the ocean, suggesting that changes in the stratification and mixing of the upper ocean can influence bottom-up and top-down processes controlling phytoplankton production. We hypothesize that by altering the rate of nutrient supply and the microzooplankton grazing pressure, the entrainment of the mixed layer regulates the onset and fate (recycling vs. export) of the autumn bloom.

Bacterioplankton play a critical role in primary production, carbon cycling, and nutrient cycling in the oligotrophic ocean. To investigate the effect of elevated CO2 and warming on the composition and function of bacterioplankton communities in oligotrophic waters, we performed two trace-metal clean deck board incubation experiments during the New Zealand GEOTRACES transect of the South Pacific gyre (SPG). High-throughput amplicon sequencing of the 16S rRNA gene revealed that bacterioplankton community composition was distinct between the fringe and ultra-oligotrophic centre of the SPG and changed consistently in response to elevated CO2 at the ultra-oligotrophic centre but not at the mesotrophic fringe of the SPG. The combined effects of elevated CO2 and warming resulted in a high degree of heterogeneity between replicate communities. Community-level protein synthesis rates (3 H-Leucine incorporation) and bacterioplankton abundance were not affected by elevated CO2 alone or in combination with warming at the fringe or ultra-oligotrophic centre of the SPG. These data suggest bacterioplankton community responses to elevated CO2 may be modulated by nutrient regimes in open ocean ecosystems and highlight the need for further investigation in expanding oligotrophic subtropical gyres.

In situ effects of ocean acidification are increasingly studied at submarine CO2 vents. Here we present a preliminary investigation into the water chemistry and biology of cool temperate CO2 vents near Whakaari–White Island, New Zealand. Water samples were collected inside three vent shafts, within vents at a distance of 2m from the shaft and at control sites. Vent samples contained both seawater pH on the total scale (pHT) and carbonate saturation states that were severely reduced, creating conditions as predicted for beyond the year 2100. Vent samples showed lower salinities, higher temperatures and greater nutrient concentrations. Sulfide levels were elevated and mercury levels were at concentrations considered toxic at all vent and control sites, but stable organic and inorganic ligands were present, as deduced from Cu speciation data, potentially mediating harmful effects on local organisms. The biological investigations focused on phytoplankton, zooplankton and macroalgae. Interestingly, we found lower abundances but higher diversity of phytoplankton and zooplankton at sites in the direct vicinity of Whakaari. Follow-up studies will need a combination of methods and approaches to attribute observations to specific drivers. The Whakaari vents represent a unique ecosystem with considerable biogeochemical complexity, which, like many other vent systems globally, require care in their use as a model of ‘future oceans’.

Oligotrophic subtropical gyres are the largest continuous biomes on Earth and play a key role in global biogeochemical cycles. Microbial communities govern primary production and carbon cycling in the oligotrophic South Pacific Gyre, yet the ecological processes which underpin microbial biogeography in the region remain understudied. We investigated microbial biogeography and community assembly processes at three depths over a ~2,000‐km the transect was longitudinal, so ran from 32°S, 170°W to 32°S, 152°W). Thus the latitude (32°S) was constant. Microbial communities in the surface waters (15 and 50 m) were remarkably similar across the transect, whilst communities at the deep chlorophyll maximum were distinct from the surface waters and displayed greater compositional heterogeneity. An ecological null model approach indicated that homogeneous selection was the dominant community assembly process in both the surface waters (100%) and at the deep chlorophyll maximum (91.81%), although variable selection (2.34%) and stochastic processes (5.85%) had a minor influence at the deep chlorophyll maximum. Homogeneous selection (76.69%77.90%), dispersal limitation (15.00%–20.05%) and variable selection (3.01%–7.11%) influenced community assembly between the surface waters and the deep chlorophyll maximum. Seawater density and temperature, which were correlated, were the most important environmental modulators of the balance between stochastic and deterministic assembly processes. Our findings demonstrate remarkable similarity in microbial community composition across longitudinal scales in the oligotrophic South Pacific Gyre, underpinned by strong environmental selection which overwhelms the influence of ecological drift. These data significantly advance our understanding of microbial community dynamics in the oligotrophic subtropical gyres which dominate the Earth's surface.

Bacterioplankton and protists fulfil key roles in marine ecosystems. Understanding the abundance and distribution of these organisms through space and time is a central focus of biological oceanographers. The role of oceanographic features, in addition to environmental conditions, in structuring bacterioplankton and protist communities has been increasingly recognised. We investigated patterns in bacterioplankton and protist diversity and community structure across the Southland Front system, a compaction of the subtropical front zone, to the east of New Zealand’s South Island. We collected 24 seawater samples across a ~65 km transect and characterised bacterioplankton and protist community composition using high-throughput sequencing of the 16S and 18S rRNA genes, respectively. We identified frontal waters as a bacterioplankton diversity hotspot relative to neighbouring subtropical and subantarctic waters, but did not find evidence of this effect in protists. Bacterioplankton showed pronounced spatial structuring across the front, with communities closely tracking water type through the region. Protist communities also tracked water type through the region, though this effect was substantially less pronounced. We used an ecological null model approach to demonstrate that protist communities are primarily assembled through stochastic processes, whilst bacterioplankton are primarily assembled through deterministic processes across the Southland Front system. We suggest that this divergence emerges from fundamental differences in the characteristics of bacterioplankton and protist communities. Our findings add to a growing body of literature highlighting the importance of oceanographic features in shaping bacterioplankton and protist communities, promoting the necessity for such features to be considered more explicitly in the future.

The speciation of dissolved iron (DFe) in the ocean is widely assumed to consist almost exclusively of Fe(III)-ligand complexes. Yet in most aqueous environments a poorly defined fraction of DFe also exists as Fe(II), the speciation of which is uncertain. Here we deploy flow injection analysis to measure in situ Fe(II) concentrations during a series of mesocosm/microcosm/multistressor experiments in coastal environments in addition to the decay rate of this Fe(II) when moved into the dark. During five mesocosm/microcosm/multistressor experiments in Svalbard and Patagonia, where dissolved (0.2 µm) Fe and Fe(II) were quantified simultaneously, Fe(II) constituted 24 %–65 % of DFe, suggesting that Fe(II) was a large fraction of the DFe pool. When this Fe(II) was allowed to decay in the dark, the vast majority of measured oxidation rate constants were less than calculated constants derived from ambient temperature, salinity, pH, and dissolved O2. The oxidation rates of Fe(II) spikes added to Atlantic seawater more closely matched calculated rate constants. The difference between observed and theoretical decay rates in Svalbard and Patagonia was most pronounced at Fe(II) concentrations <2 nM, suggesting that the effect may have arisen from organic Fe(II) ligands. This apparent enhancement of Fe(II) stability under post-bloom conditions and the existence of such a high fraction of DFe as Fe(II) challenge the assumption that DFe speciation in coastal seawater is dominated by ligand bound-Fe(III) species.

High concentrations of microplastics have been found in sea ice but the mechanisms by which they get captured into the ice and which role ice algae might play in this process remain unknown. Similarly, we do not know how the presence of microplastics might impact the colonization of sea ice by ice algae. To estimate the ecological impact of microplastics for Polar ecosystems, it is essential to understand their behaviour during ice formation and possible interactions with organisms inhabiting sea ice. In this study we tested the interaction between the ice algae Fragillariopsis cylindrus and microplastic beads with and without sea ice present and, in a third experiment, during the process of ice formation. With sea ice present, we found significantly less algae cells in the ice when incubated together with microplastics compared to the incubation without microplastics. However, during ice formation, the presence of microplastics did not impact the colonisation of the ice by F. cylindrus cells. Further, we observed a strong correlation between salinity and the relative amount of beads in the water and ice. With increasing salinity of the water, the relative amount of beads in the water decreased significantly. At the same time, the relative amount of beads in the ice increased significantly with increasing ice salinity. Both processes were not influenced by the presence of F. cylindrus . Also, we found indications that the presence of algae can affect the amount of microplastic beads sticking to the container walls. This could indicate that EPS produced by ice algae plays a significant role in surface binding properties of microplastics. Overall, our results highlight that the interactions between algae and microplastics have an influence on the uptake of microplastics into sea ice with possible implications for the sea ice food web.

Fucoxanthin is a xanthophyll and one of the main marine carotenoids. It is present in macro- and micro-algae as a component of photosynthetic light-harvesting complexes. Fucoxanthin has been shown to be bioactive in a variety of model systems, having antioxidant, anti-cancer, anti-diabetic, anti-obesity, anti-aging, anti-angiogenic, and anti-metastatic effects in animals. Fucoxanthin has been proven to be safe for consumption by animals, including humans, and hence has the potential to be used as a bioactive molecule for the prevention and/or treatment of diseases in humans. In this review, we provide an overview of the main fucoxanthin-containing algae and the fucoxanthin biosynthetic pathway in algae, and discuss the potential health benefits of fucoxanthin for humans. We summarize the various methods that can be used to extract fucoxanthin from algae and evaluate the potential of biotechnological approaches, such as cell culture and the genetic engineering, for sustainable fucoxanthin production.