Rockfalls pose a major hazard in seismically active mountainous areas, where steep slopes and complex topography amplify instability processes. This study presents an integrated workflow to evaluate earthquake-induced rockfalls by combining geostructural investigations, three-dimensional seismic site response analyses, and numerical simulations of block propagation. Field and UAV-based surveys were conducted on the western sector of Mt. Epomeo, Ischia Island (Italy), allowing the characterisation of the discontinuity sets and the definition of representative block volumes and shapes (5, 20, and 60 m3). Critical peak ground accelerations (ac) were analytically derived for each block type using probabilistic strength parameters. Three-dimensional finite element models reproduced local seismic amplification effects, producing spatial distributions of peak ground acceleration (PGA) under different scenarios. By comparing PGA with acvalues, potential release areas were identified, and the initial velocity was computed. These parameters were used for rockfall trajectory simulations, considering different scenarios of rock shape and volume, as well as release conditions. The results highlighted the influence of block volume and shape on propagation, with larger volumes developing higher kinetic energies and longer runouts, affecting urbanised areas. The vegetation acted, in some cases, as a natural barrier, stopping approximately half of the simulated blocks. The proposed workflow demonstrates the potential of integrating site response modelling and rockfall simulations to quantify seismic-induced hazard in complex volcano-tectonic settings, providing a replicable methodology for similar multi-hazard environments.

Ground motion polarization induced by topography and buried morphologies is investigated using visco-elastic three-dimensional finite element simulations. The model features a topographic crest and a buried softer zone, oriented along perpendicular directions to each other. A circular acceleration pattern is imposed at the model base, with a sinusoidal and a cosinusoidal signal applied as the x- and y-components, respectively, to isolate polarization effects caused solely by site geometry. Results are presented using three complementary parameters: the principal direction orientation angle (identifying the predominant direction of shaking), the Directivity index (quantifying motion polarization degree), and the ellipticity parameter (describing particle orbit shape). Maps of the amplification factors of peak ground acceleration along the x- and y- components reveal distinct patterns along different directions. The combined analysis of directional parameters and amplification factors demonstrates that site geometry induces marked polarization effects. The predominant motion direction aligns normal to both the topographic and buried structures. The integrated approach is particularly valuable for engineering applications involving also elongated infrastructure such as tunnels and lifelines in seismically active regions.

Carbonate rocks cover about 15% of the global continental surface and represent important water resources in terms of water quality and availability. The understanding of groundwater flows in karst aquifers is beneficial for satisfying human water demand, avoiding potential conflicts among users and preserving groundwater dependent ecosystems, that is for a sustainable management of water resources. The consequences of water utilization in karst areas are revealed through monitoring activities of hydrochemical characteristics and water utilization (withdrawals and piezometric levels).We investigated the hydrogeological relationship between two neighboring carbonate aquifers, which were considered as two separate aquifer units in the past. Archival and newly acquired data on groundwater availability, hydrochemical and isotopic features were considered. Their combined use led to the proposal of new hypotheses regarding the connection between these aquifers. This issue is not only of scientific relevance but also has practical implications; indeed, there are important springs and well fields providing water to about 3.8 million inhabitants.The aquifers examined in this study are the carbonate mountains of Mt. Maggiore and Mt. Tifata located in Campania Region in Southern Italy. The mountains are geographically separated by the Volturno River valley, filled with alluvial-pyroclastic deposits. The aquifers have been exploited for drinking purposes since the late 1980s. The exploitation of these aquifers and the availability of historical and recent data (i.e., long-term monitoring) revealed their hydrogeological connection. This connection would be induced by the strong groundwater withdrawals from the well fields at Mt. Tifata (located south of the Volturno River). In fact, the exploitation provoked the depletion of the groundwater table and the disappearance of the major spring. The connection, with groundwater flowing from Mt. Maggiore to Mt. Tifata, can explain the absence of signs of overexploitation in the groundwater of Mt. Tifata even in the presence of withdrawals that exceed the natural recharge of the aquifers. As a consequence of the connection, a recall of mineralized waters characteristic of the southern portion of Mt. Maggiore has been observed in well fields at Mt. Tifata. At Mt. Maggiore the mineralization of groundwater is related to local faults, while moving away from them the mineralization is greatly reduced. This opens broader prospects for water utilization, for example, a more specific use for mineralized waters (such as bottling, balneotherapy, etc.) and a potable use in areas distant from the mineralized zone. In conclusion, as revealed in this study, stakeholders and water managers need to consider these carbonate aquifers as a whole groundwater body (i.e., not anymore as separated aquifers) when planning their utilization.

Strike-slip fault zones commonly display complex kinematics and 3D geometries, with high structural variability along strike and with depth. In this regard, analogue modelling techniques are a powerful tool for investigating such complex structural, kinematic, and mechanical deformation processes at various scales. Dynamically scaled experiments allow a direct comparison between models and natural systems. The geometric scaling factor defines the model resolution in terms of model/prototype length equivalence and depends on the mechanical and physical properties of prototype and analogue materials. In this study, systematic strike-slip experiments were performed by using four different model materials to investigate the deformation dynamics at various scales and to highlight the impact of the physical and mechanical properties of the model material on the experiment results. The applied model materials showed a non-linear strain-dependent deformation behaviour while providing different dynamically scaled geometric scaling factors. Digital image correlation (DIC) analyses of the experiments allowed a quantitative comparison of the displacement and strain fields at different stages of the dextral displacement above a single planar basement fault. The analysis of the localisation and development of the faults and fractures in the strike-slip shear zones enabled the comparison of the different structural styles and dynamics observable at various levels of resolution. The increasing resolution enabled by the model materials with higher cohesion allowed a higher detail into the shear zones, with the development of a more complex network of discontinuities, larger shear zone width, and higher vertical relief. Therefore, the application of such a multi-scale approach in dynamically scaled experiments can provide new insights into the investigation of complex deformation processes with analogue modelling techniques.

On the 30th of November 2022, a major rockfall event occurred in the Triassic dolostones of Castrocucco cliff (Maratea, Southern Italy), mobilising a volume of about 8000 m3 (Minervino Amodio et al. 2024) and destroying the underlying SS18 national road with no fatalities. The SS18 has critical importance in an area of high tourist, landscape, and historical interests, and determined the planning of a bypass tunnel to avoid the cliff, which has been affected by recurring instability events in the last decades (Pellicani et al. 2016). However, before the tunnel could be completed, the safe reopening of the road was critical for the region. For this reason, a high-resolution monitoring system was developed, enabling the timely road closure to the traffic in case of new failure (Santo and Massaro 2024).In this study, we describe the geo-structural investigation and reconstruction of the rockfall kinematics and triggering factors, as well as the susceptibility analysis carried out to develop the monitoring system that allowed the road to reopen. Such a system consisted of a network of sensors placed in the areas and on the rock blocks that showed high levels of susceptibility to rockfalls. The data collection was performed through field and digital surveys. The latter was carried out on Virtual Outcrop Models (VOM) following drone photo acquisition. Successively, the rock block trajectories were simulated under static and seismically induced conditions with different block volume scenarios. These results, integrated with the real-time deformation data recorded by the sensors, will enhance the mitigation plan further. Moreover, the developed methodological approach and workflow could be applied to similar situations where critical road infrastructures lie in areas of high susceptibility to rockfall. Minervino Amodio A, Corrado G, Gallo IG, Gioia D, Schiattarella M, Vitale V and Robustelli G (2024) Three-dimensional rockslide analysis using unmanned aerial vehicle and lidar: The Castrocucco case study, Southern Italy. Remote Sensing, 16 (12), 2235. doi: 10.3390/rs16122235Pellicani R, Spilotro G and Van Westen CJ (2016) Rockfall trajectory modeling combined with heuristic analysis for assessing the rockfall hazard along the Maratea SS18 coastal road (Basilicata, Southern Italy). Landslides, 13: 985-1003. doi: 10.1007/s10346-015-0665-3Santo A and Massaro L (2024) Landslide monitoring and maintenance plan along infrastructure: The example of the Maratea major rockfall (Southern Italy). Landslides. doi: 10.1007/s10346-024-02409-3

Ischia (Southern Italy) is a volcanic island of the Phlegrean Volcanic District that was historically affected by multiple geological hazards, including floodings, landslides, rockfalls, and earthquakes. In this study, rockfall stability is analysed with an integrated approach aimed at investigating the rockfall source, the propagation, and the deposition areas. The case study is represented by two outcrops over a 400-m-wide cliff made of Green Tuff and located on the western area of Mt. Epomeo. They are respectively located at 280 and 420 m a.s.l., just uphill the village of Frassitelli, Forio d’Ischia, which is an area of high residential, tourist, and agricultural importance. We analysed the fracture systems of the tuff cliff to compute the kinematic analysis of the potential failure mechanisms and to perform numerical simulations of rockfall scenarios. Successively, numerical simulations of rockfall scenarios were computed based on the acquired structural information. This allowed us to identify the most hazardous scenarios based on the rock trajectories and the percentage of rock blocks affecting the urban area. The influence of the rock shape and volume on the rockfall trajectories was analysed. In the most likely scenarios, we observed that 15–25% of the rock blocks bypass the geomorphological barriers and reach the urban area, with kinetic energy values spanning between 10 2 and 10 4 kJ. Such detailed rockfall hazard analysis allowed the definition of the mitigation interventions necessary for the protection of the nearby residential area.

Landslides are one of the most hazardous secondary effects of earthquakes due to the potential for large-scale damage and long-term alterations to landscapes. During the 2016-2017 seismic sequence in Central Italy, many earthquake-triggered landslides (EQTLs) affected the road network and mountain trails. In this study, a methodological approach for analysing EQTLs, based on data derived from Unmanned Aerial Vehicle (UAV) surveys, is shown. The approach is applied to investigate the geometric, structural, geomechanical, and kinematic features of the Foce rockslide, which is introduced in the back analysis. The investigation involved three main steps: (i) set up of UAV-based Virtual Outcrop Models (VOMs) of the slope, (ii) a geomechanical characterisation of the rock mass through the VOM interpretation and conventional field data, and (iii) 3D Limit Equilibrium (LE) slope stability analyses. This study highlights the potential of UAV surveys for providing valuable data for stability analyses, especially in emergency conditions such as in the aftermath of seismic events.

This article presents a case study of the early warning monitoring system made to prevent or reduce risks in case of rock mass deformation and consequent rockfalls. A sever rockfall in November 2022 occurred and destroyed part of the national road n. 18 "Tirrena Inferiore" in Southern Italy, whom surveillance and maintenance are operated by ANAS SpA (Gruppo Fs Italiane), the Italian leading Concessionaire of national road and motorway network. ANAS SpA, in cooperation with other national and local authorities, accomplished to rebuild the road body and to mitigate the hazard. To enhance traffic safety and ensure the functionality of the protection structures, ANAS activated the onsite surveillance and implemented a remote real-time monitoring activity of the slope movement integrated with automatic real time early warning systems using a software that identifies settlements and/or displacements exceeding the threshold limits and sends an e-mail alert.

Study regionCarbonate mountains of Mt. Maggiore and Mt. Tifata, Campania Region, southern-central Italy, Mediterranean basin.Study focusThe hydrogeological relationship between the carbonate massifs of Mt. Maggiore and Mt. Tifata is investigated. Archival and newly acquired data on groundwater availability, hydrochemical and isotopic data were considered. Their combined use led to the proposal of new hypotheses regarding the connection between these aquifers. The exchange of groundwater through this connection would be induced by the strong groundwater withdrawals from the well fields at Mt. Tifata; the area of possible connection was also identified. A mineralization model of some local springs showing high CO2 and TDS values is also proposed.New hydrological insights for the regionThe carbonate rocks are widely outcropping with a mountainous morphology and host important groundwater resources in the studied region. The springs related to these carbonate aquifers have excellent chemical characteristics and, for these reasons, the major aqueducts in Campania Region rely on these groundwater resources. The well fields of the Mt. Maggiore and Mt. Tifata supply part of the metropolitan area of Naples, with 3.8 million inhabitants. The quantitative evaluation of groundwater resources and the proposed groundwater circulation scheme can support a sustainable and diversified use of the resource taking into account the presence of waters already used for drinking purposes and waters with high TDS values.

On the 30th of November 2022, a major rockfall event occurred in the Triassic dolostones of Castrocucco cliff (Maratea, Southern Italy), destroying the underlying SS18 national road with no fatalities or injuries. Successively, engineering works were applied to allow the restoration of the road, although the construction of a bypass tunnel to avoid the cliff was designed as the ideal solution. Before the tunnel can be completed, the critical importance of the road required its reopening with a high-resolution monitoring system that enables the timely road closure to the traffic in case of new failure. In this study, we describe the data collection and the reconstruction of the rockfall kinematics, as well as the susceptibility analysis carried out for the development of the monitoring system that allowed the reopening of the road. Such methodological approach and workflow could be applied to similar situations where critical road infrastructures lie in areas of high susceptibility to rockfall.

Campi Flegrei is a densely populated volcanic area in Italy. Its inner caldera periodically experiences uplift and subsidence, known as bradyseism, also accompanied by seismic activity. In the last decade, with uplift rates up to 2 cm/month, about nine-thousand earthquakes were recorded. Upon request of the local administration, the most updated data were collected and analyzed to evaluate the risk management strategy consisting of structural retrofitting according to the building code. Here it is shown that the reference moment magnitude is in the range 4.4, 5.1\documentclass[12pt]{minimal} \usepackage{amsmath} \usepackage{wasysym} \usepackage{amsfonts} \usepackage{amssymb} \usepackage{amsbsy} \usepackage{mathrsfs} \usepackage{upgreek} \setlength{\oddsidemargin}{-69pt} \begin{document}$$\left({{\mathrm{4.4,5.1}}}\right)$$\end{document}, based on fault mapping, geomorphological inference, earthquake relocation, stress-drop analysis, and ground motion modelling. Earthquake forecasting enabled computing the exceedance probabilities of these magnitudes. Earthquake engineering showed that the minimum magnitudes expected to cause exceedance of design ground motion, are larger than the reference magnitudes. Finally, the risk reduction implied by the safety levels of new constructions was assessed for reinforced concrete buildings.

The assessment of soil thickness plays a primary role in different areas of the geosciences, including landslide hazards and soil erosion assessment. Nevertheless, the thickness of the cover deposits is difficult to measure over large areas while the prediction with numerical models is still challenging. In this study, some topographic at-tributes, namely slope angle and profile curvature, are investigated as proxies for the estimate of soil thickness of pyroclastic cover through empirical relationships. The study area is the North-facing slope of the Lattari Mts. (Campania, Southern Apennines), which were historically affected by several flow-like landslides and flash floods. The dataset was collected with both direct and indirect measurements from field surveys and in-vestigations in two test sites of the study area.The topographic parameters were derived from DEMs at three different cell sizes, respectively at 1 x 1 m, 5 x 5 m, and 10 x 10 m. The slope angle at 5 x 5 m resulted in the most fitting parameter with the soil thickness, whereas the curvature showed a low correlation at all the investigated scales. The relationship for the Pyroclastic Thickness Estimation (PTE) is defined by an exponential law, which was validated by an internal and external dataset and checked against other predictive models used in the literature for similar study areas.

<p>Ischia (Southern Italy) is a volcanic island of the Phlegrean Volcanic District that was recently affected by multiple geological hazards, including floodings, landslides, rockfall and earthquakes.</p> <p>In this study, rockfall stability is analysed, assuming as a case study a 400m-wide cliff made of Green Tuff and located on the western area of Mt. Epomeo. The two outcrops studied are located at 280 and 420 m a.s.l., above the site of Frassitelli, Forio d’Ischia, which is an area of high residential, touristic and agricultural importance. The former is a high-angle outcrop affected by tens of meters-long faults, whereas the latter is characterised by high-dip pinnacles.</p> <p>We analysed the fracture systems affecting the examined formation to compute the kinematic analysis of the potential rupture mechanisms and to perform numerical simulations of potential rockfall scenarios. The data acquisition was carried out by means of classical geological field surveys and structural analysis on Virtual Outcrop Models (VOM) obtained from images acquired by drones. The VOMs were analysed with ‘CloudCompare v2.10.2’ and ‘OpenPlot’ software. The former allowed the automatic digitalisation of the exposed discontinuities by applying the ‘Facets’ plugin, based on a least-square fitting algorithm (Fernández, 2005). ‘OpenPlot’ enabled the extraction of the geostructural information from the VOM, by computing the best-fit planes of the polylines manually drawn along the interference between the geological surface and the outcrop topography (Tavani et al., 2011).</p> <p>The measured and the extracted features were classified following their attitude. Three main sets were defined, striking N-S, NW-SE and NE-SW. The fracture dataset was used to perform a kinematic analysis with ‘DIPS’ software on the surface discontinuities extracted from ‘Facets’ plugin. The 'wedge sliding' resulted the most critical potential rupture mechanism to occur on the analysed outcrops. Successively, numerical simulations of rockfall scenarios were computed based on the acquired structural information. The latter permitted us to identify the maximum run out of the potential blocks and draw some consideration on the rockfall hazard of the area.</p>

On 26th November 2022, a heavy cloudburst affected Ischia Island (Southern Italy) causing a flash flood and triggering several flowslides. The most affected municipality was Casamicciola Terme, where this event produced 12 casualties, more than 200 people evacuated and several damages to the buildings and the road network. The largest flowslide involved Celario watershed, which started as a small slide (around 10 m3) on the top of Mt. Epomeo at 703 m a.s.l. of height and impacted downward at 645 m a.s.l., successively channelising in the catchment. This study summarises the geological and geomorphological evidence collected during the field investigation of the Celario flowslide and analyses the remotely sensed UAV data to reconstruct the occurred scenario. Finally, some considerations on the relationships between the occurred damage and the flowslide impact are discussed.

The assessment of soil thickness plays a primary role in different areas of the geosciences, including landslide hazards and soil erosion assessment. Nevertheless, the thickness of the cover deposits is difficult to measure over large areas while the prediction with numerical models is challenging. In this study, some topographic attributes, namely slope angle and curvature, are investigated as a proxy for the estimate of soil thickness of pyroclastic cover through empirical relationships. The study area is represented by the Lattari Mts. (Campania, Southern Apennines), which were historically affected by several flow-like landslides and flash floods. The dataset was collected with both direct and indirect measurements from field surveys and investigations in two test sites of the study area.The topographic parameters were derived from DEMs at three different cell sizes, respectively at 1x1, 5x5 and 10x10 m. The most fitting parameter resulted in the slope angle at 5x5 m, whose relationship is defined by an exponential law, whereas the curvature showed a poor correlation with the thickness at all the investigated scales. The proposed relationship for Pyroclastic Thickness Estimation (PTE) was validated and checked against other predictive models used in the literature for similar study areas.

The analogue materials play a critical role in dynamically scaled experiments, defining the processes that can be simulated and the structures observable in the model. The dynamic scaling enables the direct comparison between the model and its natural counterpart. To obtain such a model the physical and mechanical properties of the analogue material must be scaled with respect to the rock prototype. A large variety of materials have been applied in analogue modelling studies to address the physical and mechanical requirements for the simulation of (i) upper crust, (ii) middle crust and (iii) lower crust and mantle processes. Nevertheless, the development of new model materials represents a continuous improvement of the analogue modelling techniques. We investigated the mechanical and physical properties of a new Granular Rock-Analogue Material (GRAM) (introduced in Massaro et al. (2022)) and its component materials. GRAM is an ultra-weak artificial sandstone composed of quartz sand cemented with gypsum, capable to deform by tensile and shear failure under variable stress conditions. GRAM aggregates in different mixing ratios (from 1% to 4% in weight of hemihydrate powder) were systematically tested with ring-shear tests and uniaxial compression tests. The relationships between the hemihydrate content and the mechanical properties of GRAM were examined. Additionally, the sample preparation procedure of GRAM was investigated, evaluating the impact of the residual water content on the mechanical properties of GRAM aggregates and defining a standard preparation procedure. Finally, GRAM was compared to natural rocks and to other granular materials applied in analogue modelling studies, in terms of physical and mechanical properties, application to physical modelling and dynamic scaling. It was underlined how the application of GRAM aggregates in dynamically scaled experiments can enhance the comprehension of the fault and fracture processes occurring at the scale of the damage zone.

The morphoevolution of coastal areas is due to the interactions of multiple continental and marine processes that define a highly dynamic environment. These processes can occur as rapid catastrophic events (e.g., landslides, storms, and coastal land use) or as slower continuous processes (i.e., wave, tidal, and current actions), creating a multi-hazard scenario. Maronti Bay (Ischia Island, Southern Italy) can be classified as a pocket beach that represents an important tourist and environmental area for the island, although it has been historically affected by slope instability, sea cliff recession, and coastal erosion. In this study, the historical morphoevolution of the shoreline was analysed by means of a dataset of aerial photographs and cartographic information available in the literature over a 25-year period. Furthermore, the role of cliff recession and its impact on the beach was also explored, as in recent years, the stability condition of the area was worsened by the occurrence of a remarkable landslide in 2019. The latter was reactivated following a cloudburst on the 26th of November 2022 that affected the whole Island and was analysed with the Dem of Difference technique. It provided an estimate of the mobilised volumes and showed how the erosion and deposition areas were distributed and modified by wave action. The insights from this research can be valuable in developing mitigation strategies and protective measures to safeguard the surrounding environment and ensure the safety of residents and tourists in this multi-hazard environment.

AbstractIn this study, we present a new granular rock-analogue material (GRAM) with a dynamic scaling suitable for the simulation of fault and fracture processes in analogue experiments. Dynamically scaled experiments allow the direct comparison of geometrical, kinematical and mechanical processes between model and nature. The geometrical scaling factor defines the model resolution, which depends on the density and cohesive strength ratios of model material and natural rocks. Granular materials such as quartz sands are ideal for the simulation of upper crustal deformation processes as a result of similar nonlinear deformation behaviour of granular flow and brittle rock deformation. We compared the geometrical scaling factor of common analogue materials applied in tectonic models, and identified a gap in model resolution corresponding to the outcrop and structural scale (1–100 m). The proposed GRAM is composed of quartz sand and hemihydrate powder and is suitable to form cohesive aggregates capable of deforming by tensile and shear failure under variable stress conditions. Based on dynamical shear tests, GRAM is characterized by a similar stress–strain curve as dry quartz sand, has a cohesive strength of 7.88 kPa and an average density of 1.36 g cm−3. The derived geometrical scaling factor is 1 cm in model = 10.65 m in nature. For a large-scale test, GRAM material was applied in strike-slip analogue experiments. Early results demonstrate the potential of GRAM to simulate fault and fracture processes, and their interaction in fault zones and damage zones during different stages of fault evolution in dynamically scaled analogue experiments.

Strike-slip fault zones commonly display complex 3D geometries, with high structural variability along strike and with depth and their architecture and evolution are difficult to analyse. In this regard, analogue modelling represents a powerful tool to investigate the structural, kinematic and mechanical processes in strike-slip fault systems with variable scales. In detail, dynamically scaled experiments allow the direct comparison between model and nature. The geometrical scale factor defines the model resolution, in terms of model/prototype length equivalence, and depends on the physical properties of prototype and model material. Therefore, the choice of the analogue material is critical in scaled analogue experiments. Granular materials like dry silica sand are ideal for the simulation of upper crustal deformation processes due to similar non-linear strain-dependent deformation behaviour of granular flow and brittle rock deformation. Comparing the geometrical scaling factor of the common analogue materials applied in tectonic models, we identified a model resolution gap for the simulation of fault-fracture processes corresponding to the structural scale (1 m – 100 m) observed in fault zones and damage zones in outcrops, field studies or subsurface well data. We developed a new Granular Rock-Analogue Material (GRAM) for the simulation of fault-fracture processes at the structural scale. GRAM is an ultra-weak sand aggregate composed of silica sand and hemihydrate powder capable to deform by tensile and shear failure under variable stress conditions. Based on dynamical shear tests, the new GRAM is characterised by a similar stress-strain curve as dry silica sand and has a geometrical scaling factor L * = L model /L nature = 10 -3 (1 cm in model = 20 m in nature). We performed strike-slip experiments at two different length scales, applying as model material dry silica sand and the new GRAM. Digital Image Correlation (DIC) time-series stereo images of the experiments surface allowed the comparison of the developed structures at different stages of dextral displacement above a single planar basement fault. The analysis of fractures localisation and growth in the strike-slip zone with displacement and strain components enabled the comparison of the different structural styles characterising dry silica sand and GRAM models. The application of the developed GRAM in scaled experiments can provide new insights to the multiscale investigation of complex deformation processes with analogue models.

In this study, discrete fracture network (DFN) modelling was performed for Triassic–Jurassic analogue reservoir units of the NW Lurestan region, Iran. The modelling was elaborated following a multi-scale statistical sampling of the fracture systems characterising the analysed succession. The multi-scale approach was performed at two different observation scales. At the macro-scale, a digital outcrop analysis was carried out by means of a digital line-drawing based on camera-acquired images, focussing on the distribution of major throughgoing fractures; at the meso-scale, the scan line method was applied to investigate the background fractures of the examined formations. The gathered data were statistically analysed in order to estimate the laws governing the statistical distribution of some key fracture set attributes, namely, spacing, aperture, and height. The collected dataset was used for the DFN modelling, allowing the evaluation of the relative connectivity of the fracture systems and, therefore, defining the architecture and the geometries within the fracture network. The performed fracture modelling, confirmed, once again, the crucial impact that large-scale throughgoing fractures have on the decompartmentalization of a reservoir and on the related fluid flow migration processes. The derived petrophysical properties distribution showed in the models, defined the Kurra Chine Fm. and, especially, the Sehkaniyan Fm. as good-quality reservoir units, whereas the Sarki Fm was considered a poor-quality reservoir unit.