Climate change is expected to increase the frequency and size of large uncontrollable fires. The impact of this trend on forest vegetation is still poorly understood, especially in areas not commonly subject to recurrent fires, i.e. in areas where tree species may not be adapted to fire and where flammability may increase as warming decreases moisture. Here we use recent advances in remote sensing to simulate burned area development until the end of the century under different climate scenarios. We then combine these projections with an European forest resources model to assess the impact of projected fire regimes on forests in three major biomes in Europe (i.e. Mediterranean, temperate and boreal forests, here represented by three countries: Spain, Germany and Sweden). Burned area was projected to increase in all regions in the 21st century, with the biggest increase and highest absolute damage in the Mediterranean region under the most severe climate scenario. Furthermore, we found that future fire disproportionately affects temperate forests, where a higher level of damage occurs for the same relative increase in burned area, compared to the other biomes. This was mostly due to the combination of increasingly favourable weather conditions for fire and large standing biomass, which drove the increased susceptibility of temperate regions to emerging wildfire regimes. Our findings call for mainstreaming fire and fuel management strategies into forest planning to increase resilience to fires, particularly in temperate regions with limited past fire occurrence and a projected increase in favourable fire weather.

The agro-forest frontier is the dynamic border between agricultural and forested lands. Drawing on results from an interdisciplinary research programme, we synthesise and compare social-ecological dynamics in three Latin American agro-forest frontiers: Marques de Comillas and La Sepultura in Mexico, and Zona da Mata in Brazil. Each includes extensive livestock grazing, rain-fed agriculture, secondary vegetation, and state-protected areas. Forest transition theory (FTT) proposes that after settlement, forest cover decreases until a turning point (the forest transition) when forest cover may start to increase. We asked what drives forest cover change in each site and how well the FTT reflects empirical evidence. We quantified past forest dynamics, positioned the frontiers along the 'forest transition curve', qualitatively assessed their drivers of change, and evaluated the fit between theoretical models and empirical evidence. The frontiers represented different socio-ecological dynamics, resulting in contrasting forest cover trends that extend beyond patterns described by the FTT. The two Mexican frontiers appeared to be locked into pathways away from forest transitions; one driven by state-led conservation, and characterised by low-productive agriculture and forest degradation; the other driven by globalisation and neoliberal developments, and characterised by extensive grazing and deforestation. A forest transition was observed in the Brazilian frontier, enabled by alignment of social movements and state policy. To advance understanding of forest transitions, scholars should broaden the analytical use of the FTT to include lock-ins that hinder transitions, while considering power-dynamics and the agency of social movements. Advanced understanding is urgent to promote forest transitions as part of the strategy to achieve global restoration targets.

Abstract Ecological restoration is gaining global momentum for climate mitigation, yet its prevailing approach, often rooted in Western technical science, frequently appears neutral while inadvertently reinforcing power imbalances and sidelining local knowledge. We argue for biocultural restoration approaches that go beyond community participation by explicitly integrating cultural meanings, knowledge systems, and power relations into restoration planning and governance. We frame restoration as an inherently socio‐political act, rather than a neutral fix to a broken nature. The approach integrates three core principles and tools: political ecology, which acknowledges and addresses unequal power dynamics influencing restoration; landscape biographies, offering a comprehensive historical understanding of human–nature interactions to inform restoration goals and prevent the perpetuation of injustices; and traditional ecological knowledge (TEK), which provides invaluable local insights on ecosystem functioning and contributes to decolonising restoration practices while empowering local communities. Restoration researchers and practitioners must ensure that restoration efforts truly serve the diverse values and needs of local populations. Read the free Plain Language Summary for this article on the Journal blog.

Non-native and invasive species are among the leading causes of global biodiversity loss and could therefore compromise the recovery of native forests after disturbance, such as on abandoned agricultural lands. Here we evaluated how the relative density and richness of non-native woody species (NNS) change across secondary tropical forest succession, determined whether they vary between dry and moist forests and identified the underlying environmental and social drivers of these changes. We used data from 1,561 forest plots and 58 chronosequences from ten neotropical countries. We classified 3,735 woody species by origin and invasiveness. Our analyses and conclusions focus on NNS, whereas native (potentially) invasive groups were examined separately. NNS were widespread, occurring in 81% of the chronosequences and comprising 18% of dry and 41% of moist forest plots. We recorded 11 non-native invasive species, most of which were multifunctional trees associated with human activity. In early succession (the first 10-20 years), NNS reached high relative density and richness, accounting for 28% of stems and 22% of species in moist forests, and 9% of stems and species in dry forests. Both metrics declined considerably during the same period but were still present in late succession, mirroring the successional trajectory of native pioneer species, probably due to canopy closure and increased shading. Spatially, NNS richness increased with the Human Development Index. However, both density and richness were negatively affected by increasing surrounding forest cover, agricultural proximity and precipitation, while soil organic carbon generally favoured NNS retention. Our findings suggest that naturally regrowing forests and maintaining relatively intact forest landscapes provide nature-based solutions to control NNS, thereby protecting native biodiversity, ecosystem integrity and local livelihoods.

Mediterranean agroecosystems are increasingly exposed to climate change, with warming and hydro-climatic extremes threatening soil fertility, water regulation and ecosystem resilience. Mediterranean olive groves represent emblematic woody systems where structural configuration and the type of management strongly influence soil-vegetation processes and ecosystem multifunctionality. This study investigates how these factors – ranging from low to high tree density and from abandoned to highly managed systems – jointly shape ecological functioning and ecosystem service provision in olive agroecosystems under Mediterranean climatic constraints. Field measurements combined assessments of vegetation structure, leaf nutrient concentrations and soil physicochemical properties under and outside tree canopies across olive groves differing in management intensity and tree density. Linear mixed-effects models identified management intensity and canopy proximity as the main drivers of ecosystem functioning, while tree density played a secondary but significant role. Vegetation structure responded strongly to management: abandoned groves showed substantially higher canopy development, with leaf area index ranging from 2.77–3.43, compared with 1.13–1.28 in managed systems, and canopy volumes reaching 21.37 m3 in abandoned high-density olive groves. In contrast, leaf nutrient concentrations showed limited sensitivity to management and spatial configuration, suggesting stronger physiological regulation. At the soil level, canopy proximity generated clear microhabitat effects. Under-canopy soils consistently exhibited higher moisture and organic matter than inter-row areas, with soil water content reaching 9.5% under canopy compared with 5.5% outside canopy in abandoned low-density systems. Nutrient dynamics followed a hierarchical pattern: canopy proximity enhanced nitrate and phosphorus availability locally, while management intensity and tree density structured longer-term soil chemical properties. These patterns reflect enhanced regulating ecosystem services, particularly water regulation and soil quality maintenance, as well as supporting services related to nutrient cycling. Overall, agroecosystem functioning emerged scale-dependent and strongly shaped by canopy-driven spatial heterogeneity within broader management gradients, highlighting how ecosystem services arise as emergent properties of interacting structural and process-based controls.

Farmer Managed Natural Regeneration (FMNR) is a low-cost, adaptable agroforestry practice that enhances land restoration by promoting systematic integration of naturally regenerating trees within farming systems through tree selection and management. Despite its increasing adoption in sub-Saharan Africa, comparative evidence across land uses remains limited. This study empirically compares tree and woody regeneration density, species richness, and composition between silvo-arable (maize cultivation) and silvo-pastoral (grazing) FMNR systems in semi-arid Kenya. Sixty-three plots were established across these two land uses, within which a total of 1409 trees and 505 woody regeneration individuals were recorded. Tree density was higher in silvo-pastoral FMNR systems (558/ha) than in silvo-arable systems (150/ha), though the difference was not statistically significant. In contrast, woody regeneration density was significantly greater in silvo-arable systems (2450/ha vs. 727/ha). Rarefied species richness of trees was the same in silvo-arable FMNR and silvo-pastoral FMNR systems, while richness of regeneration was either significantly higher than the tree community, like in silvo-arable systems, or significantly lower than the tree community, like in silvo-pastoral systems. Non-metric multidimensional scaling showed that silvo-pastoral FMNR systems exhibited similar species composition between trees and regeneration, whereas silvo-arable FMNR systems displayed greater variability in tree composition across fields, reflecting less variable preferences by farmers. Given that regeneration represents future tree communities, reduced regeneration diversity in silvo-pastoral systems may constrain long-term species richness. These findings suggest that silvo-arable and silvo-pastoral FMNR systems follow distinct restoration pathways, with implications for biodiversity conservation, livelihoods, and the scaling of FMNR as a restoration practice.

There is increasing interest in practice and policy in the use of polycultures composed of a tree layer integrated with multiple other perennial vegetation layers (“food forests”) in temperate regions, but scientific understanding of this farming system appears limited. This scoping review aims to facilitate future food forestry research by providing a clear overview of existing empirical research and research agenda. To do so, we unite a body of literature that is currently fragmented, mainly due to inconsistent terminology, and organize it around nine key research themes defined in a conceptual framework. This conceptual framework, collaboratively developed by a network of food forestry scholars, outlines the following themes to strengthen the science-policy-practice interface: personal motivation, external factors, knowledge (co-)creation, types of food forests, management characteristics, ecosystem functioning, value creation, interaction or comparison with other land use systems, and transition processes. For each theme, we describe the extent to which the theme and more specific subthemes within this theme have been empirically investigated, which methodological approaches are used to do so, and which topics and methodologies future research should prioritize. Overall, we highlight three ‘clusters’ of research gaps. These center around questions pertaining to food production at food forests, multifunctionality at food forests, and processes of knowledge legitimization around food forestry. Methodologically, we make a case for transdisciplinary approaches. Additionally, studies with more analytical, experimental and longitudinal approaches, larger sample sizes, older study sites, and conducted in underexplored regions, are necessary to address the research gaps we identify.

In forest experiments, tree species capable of high rates of photosynthesis grow more slowly than species with lower maximum rates of photosynthesis — with implications for tree-planting projects. In forest experiments, tree species capable of high rates of photosynthesis grow more slowly than species with lower maximum rates of photosynthesis — with implications for tree-planting projects.

Agricultural expansion has significantly diminished tropical forests. Understanding how social-ecological processes impact local smallholder land-use decisions is critical for assessing the effectiveness of land-use policy initiatives and shaping long-term socio-environmental futures. Through a comparative analysis of two neighboring communities this research examines: 1) the land-use composition at farm-level, and 2) the social-ecological variables at three different scales: local (household factors), regional (biophysical factors), and national (institutional factors) that shape smallholders land-use decisions in an agro-forest frontier in Southern Mexico. Drawing on farm-level data from semi-structured interviews we tested for differences in land-use composition across farms per community. Using a combination of qualitative analysis from ethnographic research, and generalized linear models we assessed the variables that influence smallholder land-use decisions. Seven distinct land-use types were identified: agriculture, pasture, primary forest, secondary forest, rubber, oil palm, and reforestation. The two communities differ in on-farm primary forest cover. We found that the following variables influence smallholders’ land-use decisions: 1) local-level: farm size, off-farm income, and diversity of income sources; 2) regional-level: soil quality; 3) institutional-level: some programs (Rubber, Oil palm, Reforestation) influence certain land-use decisions, while the relationship between some programs (PROCAMPO, PROGAN, PES) and certain land-use decisions was harder to evaluate. We conclude that while making local land-use decisions, smallholders evaluate a number of social-ecological factors at various scales. This has important implications for the formulation of more tailored and contextual-based agricultural development and conservation policies that aim not only to accomplish specified land-use outcomes but also to improve farmers’ livelihoods.

Forest Transition (FT) is a theoretical framework for understanding tree cover changes but often overlooks differences within countries, across forest types (e.g., second-growth forests, tree plantations replacing natural forests), regions, and climates. We quantified tropical tree cover dynamics across eight regions in four tropical countries, examining how these patterns relate to FT and how they vary between climates and forest types. Each country represented a different stage in the FT trajectory. We combined Landsat-derived time-series from 1990 to 2020 with Sentinel-2-based land cover classification to distinguish between mature natural forests (MF), second-growth forests (SF), tree plantations (TP), and their dynamics. During this period, 50 % of MF was lost, while tree cover gains averaged 16 % across regions; SF contributed 23 % and TP 12 % of total tree cover by 2020. SF steadily increased, yet its average lifespan was only 10 years, limiting its ecological contributions compared to MF. The studied regions followed the theoretical FT trajectory: the Ghanaian regions were in early transition (pre-inflection), Mexican regions were in late transition (pre-inflection), and the Australian and Brazilian (Sao Paulo state) regions were in post-transition (post-inflection). Evaluating FT while including or excluding TP results in different conclusions about the FT trajectory of a region or country. MF was lower in dry (from 55 % in the 1990s to 23 % in 2020) than in wet (from 73 % in the 1990s to 35 % in 2020) forest regions. SF gains were higher in dry (31 %) than in wet (23 %) regions, though SF increases did not compensate for MF loss, resulting in reduced biodiversity and ecological functioning. Hence, halting deforestation and protecting young forests are equally crucial. Evaluating FT excluding TP and quantifying SF persistence may have far-reaching consequences for how to evaluate tree cover by not only evaluating tree cover quantity, but also tree cover quality. Our findings can inform policymakers to design smart policy mixes that sequence the right policy instruments at the right time. Local people must participate in forest restoration strategies and issues of equity, justice and power imbalances must be addressed to facilitate FT. Dissecting FT increases our understanding of the underlying forest cover dynamics, which can lead to better policies for protecting local people`s livelihoods, halt deforestation, and facilitate FT to restore the natural world upon which people`s lives and society depend.

AimSuccessional changes in functional diversity provide insights into community assembly by indicating how species are filtered into local communities based on their traits. Here, we assess successional changes in taxonomic and functional richness, evenness and redundancy along gradients of climate, soil pH and forest cover.LocationNeotropics.Time periodLast 0-100 years.Major taxa studiedTrees.MethodsWe used 22 forest chronosequence studies and 676 plots across the Neotropics to analyse successional changes in Hill's taxonomic and functional diversity of trees, and how these successional changes vary with continental-scale gradients in precipitation, soil pH and surrounding forest cover.ResultsTaxonomic and functional richness and functional redundancy increased, while taxonomic and functional evenness decreased over time. Functional richness and evenness changed strongly when not accounting for taxonomic richness, but changed more weakly after statistically accounting for taxonomic richness, indicating that changes in functional diversity are largely driven by taxonomic richness. Nevertheless, the successional increases in functional richness when correcting for taxonomic richness may indicate that environmental heterogeneity and limiting similarity increase during succession. The taxonomically-independent successional decreases in functional evenness may indicate that stronger filtering and competition select for dominant species with similar trait values, while many rare species and traits are added to the community. Such filtering and competition may also lead to increased functional redundancy. The changes in taxonomically-independent functional diversity varied with resource availability and were stronger in harsh, resource-poor environments, but weak in benign, productive environments. Hence, in resource-poor environments, environmental filtering and facilitation are important, whereas in productive environments, weaker abiotic filtering allows for high initial functional diversity and weak successional changes.Main conclusionWe found that taxonomic and functional richness and functional redundancy increased and taxonomic and functional evenness decreased during succession, mainly caused by the increasing number of rare species and traits due to the arrival of new species and due to changing (a)biotic filters.

Abstract This chapter uses the CICES framework to review results from studies on forest restoration’s effects on ecosystem services (ES), focusing on biodiversity, nutrient cycling, water cycling, and provisioning and cultural services. We discuss trade-offs between ES for different restoration methods and their specific applications, examine disservices resulting from forest restoration, and detail variation in outcomes across time and space. Our review shows most studies focus on just a few regulating and maintenance services. Provisioning and cultural services remain underrepresented. Very little research is devoted to disservices. It is poorly understood how these (unintentional) restoration results balance with services and how they differ between stakeholders. We find that context matters in forest restoration projects, as it defines appropriate methods, outcomes, and implications. A broad, multifunctional focus in restoration is needed to identify trade-offs between ES in different forms of restoration, to weigh services and disservices, and to evaluate total restoration success.

Light competition is thought to drive successional shifts in species dominance in closed vegetations, but few studies have assessed this for species-rich and vertically structured tropical forests. We analyzed how light competition drives species replacement during succession, and how cross-species variation in light competition strategies is determined by underlying species traits. To do so, we used chronosequence approach in which we compared 14 Mexican tropical secondary rainforest stands that differ in age (8–32 year-old). For each tree, height and stem diameter were monitored for 2 years to calculate relative biomass growth rate (RGR, the aboveground biomass gain per unit aboveground tree biomass per year). For each stand, 3D light profiles were measured to estimate individuals’ light interception to calculate light interception efficiency (LIE, intercepted light per unit biomass per year) and light use efficiency (LUE, biomass growth per intercepted light). Throughout succession, species with higher RGR attained higher changes in species dominance and thus increased their dominance over time. Both light competition strategies (LIE and LUE) increased RGR. In early succession, a high LIE and its associated traits (large crown leaf mass and low wood density) are more important for RGR. During succession, forest structure builds up, leading to lower understory light levels. In later succession, a high LUE and its associated traits (high wood density and leaf mass per area) become more important for RGR. Therefore, successional changes in relative importance of light competition strategies drive shifts in species dominance during tropical rainforest succession.

Crown removal revitalises sand-fixing shrubs that show declining vigour with age in drought-prone environments; however, the underlying mechanisms are poorly understood. Here, we addressed this knowledge gap by comparing the growth performance, xylem hydraulics and plant carbon economy across different plant ages (10, 21 and 33 years) and treatments (control and crown removal) using a representative sand-fixing shrub (Caragana microphylla Lam.) in northern China. We found that growth decline with plant age was accompanied by simultaneous decreases in soil moisture, plant hydraulic efficiency and photosynthetic capacity, suggesting that these interconnected changes in plant water relations and carbon economy were responsible for this decline. Following crown removal, quick resprouting, involving remobilisation of root nonstructural carbohydrate reserves, contributed to the reconstruction of an efficient hydraulic system and improved plant carbon status, but this became less effective in older shrubs. These age-dependent effects of carbon economy and hydraulics on plant growth vigour provide a mechanistic explanation for the age-related decline and revitalisation of sand-fixing shrubs. This understanding is crucial for the development of suitable management strategies for shrub plantations constructed with species having the resprouting ability and contributes to the sustainability of ecological restoration projects in water-limited sandy lands.

Water security represents a major challenge in East Africa, affecting the livelihoods of millions of people and hindering sustainable development. Predicted increases in rainfall intensity and variability are expected to exacerbate water insecurity and land degradation. Improving soil infiltrability is an effective strategy for addressing water insecurity and land degradation. Research on soil infiltrability is often highly localized; therefore, scientific understanding of the drivers of infiltrability on larger spatial scales is limited. The aim of this study was to understand the main drivers of infiltrability across five contrasting landscapes in Kenya. We measured field-saturated hydraulic conductivity (Kfs) in 257 plots and collected data for variables representing soil properties (sand content, soil organic carbon (SOC) and pH), land degradation (grazing pressure and presence of erosion), vegetation quantity (woody aboveground biomass), and vegetation quality (functional properties and diversity). We used generalized mixed-effects models to test for the effects of these variables on Kfs. Median Kfs for the five sites ranged between 23.8 and 101.8 mm h-1. We found that Kfs was positively associated with sand content (standardized effect 0.39), SOC content (0.15), and functional diversity of woody vegetation (0.09), while it had a negative relationship with the presence of erosion (-0.24) and grazing pressure (-0.09). Subsequently, we conclude that infiltrability can be enhanced through using land restoration strategies which specifically target parameters that affect Kfs. The results further support that Kfs is not solely dictated by inherent soil properties, and that management interventions which boost SOC, reduce erosion, and minimize unsustainable grazing can help address water scarcity by restoring soil hydrological function.

Succession is defined as a directional change in species populations, the community, and the ecosystem at a site following a disturbance. Succession is a fundamental concept in ecology as it links different disciplines. An improved understanding of succession is urgently needed in the Anthropocene to predict the widespread effects of global change on succession and ecosystem recovery, but a comprehensive successional framework (CSF) is lacking. A CSF is needed to synthesize results, draw generalizations, advance successional theory, and make improved decisions for ecosystem restoration. We first show that succession is an integral part of socio-ecological system dynamics and that it is driven by social and ecological factors operating at different spatial scales, ranging from the patch to the globe. We then present a CSF at the local scale (patch and landscape) at which succession takes place and explain the underlying successional processes and mechanisms operating at that scale. The CSF reflects the increasingly broader perspective on succession and includes recent theoretical advances by not only focusing on species replacement but also on ecosystem development, considering succession as part of a socio-ecological system, and taking the effect of past and current land use, the landscape context, biotic interactions, and feedback loops into account. We discuss how the CSF can be used to integrate and synthesize successional studies, and its implications for ecosystem restoration.

Land degradation is a major threat to food security in Sub Saharan Africa. Low infiltration rates in degraded soils increase the risk of surface runoff and decrease soil and groundwater recharge, resulting in further loss of soil fertility, water scarcity and crop failure. Increasing woody vegetation typically enhances soil infiltrability but little is known about how species may have differential effects on the soil hydrological properties. The aim of this study is to understand how woody vegetation and its functional properties affect soil fertility and infiltrability. We measured field-saturated soil hydraulic conductivity (K-fs) and soil organic carbon (SOC) in 38 plots across agricultural landscapes in Muminji, Kenya. Woody vegetation and land use inventories took place and species functional traits were measured on the 63 most abundant species. We systematically tested the effects of vegetation quantity (aboveground woody biomass and vegetation cover) and quality (functional properties and diversity) on soil health (K-fs as a proxy for soil infiltrability and SOC for soil fertility). We found that both vegetation quantity and quality affected soil health. Aboveground woody biomass increased the K-fs and we found a nearly significant positive effect of vegetation cover on SOC. Woody plants with a low leaf thickness positively affected K-fs and a nearly significant negative effect of wood moisture content on SOC was found. Synthesis and applications. This study demonstrates that the systematic assessment of vegetation can lead to evidence-based recommendations to guide land restoration. We found that avoiding bare soil and promoting woody plants, while favouring species with thin leaves and avoiding species with a very low wood density and water storage strategy, is beneficial for soil health across agricultural landscapes in East African drylands.

Succession is a fundamental concept in ecology because it indicates how species populations, communities, and ecosystems change over time on new substrate or after a disturbance. A mechanistic understanding of succession is needed to predict how ecosystems will respond to land-use change and to design effective ecosystem restoration strategies. Yet, despite a century of conceptual advances a comprehensive successional theory is lacking. Here we provide an overview of 19 successional theories ('models') and their key points, group them based on conceptual similarity, explain conceptual development in successional ideas and provide suggestions how to move forward. Four groups of models can be recognised. The first group (patch & plants) focuses on plants at the patch level and consists of three subgroups that originated in the early 20th century. One subgroup focuses on the processes (dispersal, establishment, and performance) that operate sequentially during succession. Another subgroup emphasises individualistic species responses during succession, and how this is driven by species traits. A last subgroup focuses on how vegetation structure and underlying demographic processes change during succession. A second group of models (ecosystems) provides a more holistic view of succession by considering the ecosystem, its biota, interactions, diversity, and ecosystem structure and processes. The third group (landscape) considers a larger spatial scale and includes the effect of the surrounding landscape matrix on succession as the distance to neighbouring vegetation patches determines the potential for seed dispersal, and the quality of the neighbouring patches determines the abundance and composition of seed sources and biotic dispersal vectors. A fourth group (socio-ecological systems) includes the human component by focusing on socio-ecological systems where management practices have long-lasting legacies on successional pathways and where regrowing vegetations deliver a range of ecosystem services to local and global stakeholders. The four groups of models differ in spatial scale (patch, landscape) or organisational level (plant species, ecosystem, socio-ecological system), increase in scale and scope, and reflect the increasingly broader perspective on succession over time. They coincide approximately with four periods that reflect the prevailing view of succession of that time, although all views still coexist. The four successional views are: succession of plants (from 1910 onwards) where succession was seen through the lens of species replacement; succession of communities and ecosystems (from 1965 onwards) when there was a more holistic view of succession; succession in landscapes (from 2000 onwards) when it was realised that the structure and composition of landscapes strongly impact successional pathways, and increased remote-sensing technology allowed for a better quantification of the landscape context; and succession with people (from 2015 onwards) when it was realised that people and societal drivers have strong effects on successional pathways, that ecosystem processes and services are important for human well-being, and that restoration is most successful when it is done by and for local people. Our review suggests that the hierarchical successional framework of Pickett is the best starting point to move forward as this framework already includes several factors, and because it is flexible, enabling application to different systems. The framework focuses mainly on species replacement and could be improved by focusing on succession occurring at different hierarchical scales (population, community, ecosystem, socio-ecological system), and by integrating it with more recent developments and other successional models: by considering different spatial scales (landscape, region), temporal scales (ecosystem processes occurring over centuries, and evolution), and by taking the effects of the surrounding landscape (landscape integrity and composition, the disperser community) and societal factors (previous and current land-use intensity) into account. Such a new, comprehensive framework could be tested using a combination of empirical research, experiments, process-based modelling and novel tools. Applying the framework to seres across broadscale environmental and disturbance gradients allows a better insight into what successional processes matter and under what conditions.