Purpose. Although the “raw milk” statement requested by Regulation (EC) No 853/2004 was designed to inform consumers about the specific microbiological risks associated with cheeses made with raw milk and to support informed choice, especially for vulnerable groups, it is often perceived as a marker of naturalness, artisanal quality, and added value rather than as a health-related warning. This study assessed whether mandatory “raw milk” information and health warnings were effectively communicated at retail level, including non-prepacked cheeses sold at the delicatessen counter. Such information are also needed within the current Italian regulatory framework and in light of the recent Ministry of Health guidelines on Shiga toxin-producing Escherichia coli (STEC) control in non-pasteurized milk cheeses. Methods. An observational survey was conducted on 100 raw milk cheese references collected from large-scale retail, specialty shops, markets, dairies, and agritourism outlets. For each sample, milk origin, cheese texture, point of sale, packaging type, presence of the “raw milk” statement, YOPI warnings, and additional information tools were recorded. Descriptive statistics were combined with chi-square and Fisher’s exact tests to examine associations between labelling correctness, packaging, and point of sale. Results. Bovine milk cheeses predominated (81%), followed by sheep (10%) and goat cheeses (9%). Semi-hard cheeses were the most frequent texture (58%). Most products were sold as non-prepacked cheeses (71%), while 26% were in their original packaging and 2% were sold over the counter. Overall, 54% of the samples displayed a correct “raw milk” declaration, whereas 46% lacked. Health warnings for vulnerable consumers were present in only 11% of the samples. Labelling correctness was strongly associated with packaging type and retail channels: All cheeses sold in their original packaging were correctly labelled, compared with only 39.4% of non-prepacked products. Large-Scale Retail Trade showed a higher proportion of compliant labels (69.2%) than other retail channels. These associations were statistically significant according to both chi-square and Fisher’s exact tests. Conclusions. The “raw milk” claim may be perceived by consumers as a marker of authenticity and added value; however, from a public health perspective, it should always be coupled with clear and readily understandable risk communication. Our findings suggest that reliance on indirect information tools, such as ingredient books, is inadequate in routine retail practice. In line with recent Ministry of Health guidelines, mandatory warnings for vulnerable consumers should be clearly visible not only on prepackaged products but also on non-prepacked and counter-sold cheeses, ideally through standardized wording and/or simple pictograms to improve information accessibility and consumer protection. Such warnings should remain mandatory even for non-prepacked raw milk products, similar to the requirements for allergen information under Regulation (EU) No 1169/2011.

This study compares Salmonella monitoring data obtained from food business operator (FBO) self-monitoring and competent authority (CA) official sampling on pig carcasses in a high-throughput Italian slaughterhouse over 10 years (2012-2021 for FBO; 2014-2021 for CA). A total of 1560 FBO and 377 CA samples were analyzed. Salmonella prevalence was 3.46% [95% confidence interval (CI): 2.6-4.5] for FBO and 10.34% (95% CI: 7.3-13.5) for CA, with statistically significant yearly differences in 2015, 2017, 2018, and 2020 (p<0.05). Derby was the predominant serovar (22.6%); however, 20.4% of the FBO isolates were classified only as “No Typhimurium and Enteritidis”, highlighting gaps in serotyping protocols. Discrepancies likely reflect differences in sampling frequencies, carcass origins, and the use of different accredited laboratories by FBO and CA (private and official ones, respectively). The study identifies regulatory ambiguities, including a mistranslation in the Italian Ministerial Note, and recommends enhanced farm-level controls and harmonized surveillance.

Shiga toxin-producing Escherichia coli (STEC) are zoonotic pathogens commonly carried by cattle and responsible for severe human diseases, as bloody diarrhoea (BD) and haemolytic uraemic syndrome (HUS). In an Italian slaughterhouse, 150 dairy cows were tested by swabbing the hides after stunning and the carcasses before refrigeration. STEC prevalence was 6.7% on hides and 4.0% on carcasses. No hide-to carcass contamination in the same animal was observed. Twenty isolates belonging to the serotypes O26:H11, O55:H9, O55:H12, O109:H10, O116:H28, O127:H12, O150:H2 (hides only), O157:H7 and O177:25 (hides and carcasses), O84:H2 and O177:H11 (carcasses only) were detected and analysed by Whole Genome Sequencing. Following published risk ranking schemes, STEC isolates were classified into seven groups according to their virulence gene profiles (stx1 and stx2 variants and the presence/absence of eae), in descending order from those most frequently associated with BD and HUS (groups I-V) to those considered least pathogenic (groups VI and VII). Overall, 75% of the isolates were assigned to groups I-V, highlighting the substantial pathogenic potential of the bovine strains. Regarding antimicrobial resistance, only one isolate (5%) was resistant to four or more antimicrobial classes, while 15% of the isolates carried ESBL-genes (blaCTX-M-1, or blaTEM-1 A, or blaTEM-1B) and displayed phenotypic resistance to ampicillin. Nevertheless, current therapeutic options of STEC infections suggest the use of azithromycin, a bacteriostatic agent that can avoid the progression of BD to HUS. Notably, all STEC isolates classified within groups I-V were susceptible to azithromycin, thus suggesting its potential usefulness in patient treatments.

Wild boars are the most widespread large wild mammals globally, capable of reaching high population densities due to their ecological adaptability and human-related factors. This leads to significant environmental, economic, and public health issues, making effective management essential. Hunting remains the most efficient control strategy and offers the potential to develop a game meat supply chain. However, wild boars are known carriers of foodborne pathogens and antimicrobial-resistant bacteria, and various hunting-related factors can influence carcass hygiene. This study aimed to assess microbial hygiene indicators—aerobic colony count (ACC), Enterobacteriaceae count (EntC), Salmonella, and Escherichia coli—in wild boars hunted in the Emilia-Romagna, northern Italy, during the 2022/2023 and 2023/2024 hunting seasons. A total of 115 sponge samples from carcasses and 78 diaphragm muscle samples were collected from eight game-handling establishments (GHEs), with biometric and process-related data also recorded. Results showed average ACC and EntC levels of 4.22 and 2.27 log CFU/cm2, respectively. Salmonella was found in 3.48% of samples, with limited resistance detected (only one isolate resistant to sulfamethoxazole). E. coli was detected in 97.43% of the samples, with no resistance observed to third-generation cephalosporins or carbapenems. Of these E. coli isolates, 39.5% harboured at least one virulence gene, and the majority were classified as atypical enteroaggregative E. coli (aEAEC). The study highlighted that time intervals between killing, evisceration, and skinning had a significant impact on hygiene, recommending completion of all steps ideally within 4 h. Although specific hygiene criteria for wild game are lacking, the observed microbial levels were within acceptable limits set for livestock by Regulation (EC) No 2073/2005. The findings underscore the need for standardized processing practices to ensure safety in wild boar meat production.

IntroductionAntimicrobial resistance (AMR) is a global concern, particularly worsened by the spread of multidrug-resistant (MDR) bacteria such as Klebsiella pneumoniae.MethodsThis study investigated the presence of extended-spectrum β-lactamase (ESBL) and carbapenemase-producing K. pneumoniae in wild birds (corvids and waterfowl) and in red foxes in Northern Italy.Results and discussionAlthough the overall prevalence of K. pneumoniae in the present study was relatively low (2.0, 95% CI: 1.0–3.7%), its isolation from multiple wild species confirms the environmental circulation of this clinically relevant AMR bacterium in ecosystems not directly exposed to antibiotic pressure. In particular, the isolation of a carbapenemase-producing strain from a fox highlights the introduction of clinically significant carbapenemase genes into wildlife reservoirs. The phenotypic AMR profiles of K. pneumoniae isolates revealed a high prevalence of MDR strains that were largely confirmed by the genomic analysis. In-silico analyses of K. pneumoniae sequencing data led to the identification of the most frequent resistance genes and the in-silico typing reveals the prevalence of the ST307 high-risk clone. Remarkably, wildlife could be considered a significant AMR sentinel, serving as carriers of MDR K. pneumoniae in different and even distant geographic areas. These findings underscore the importance of integrating wildlife surveillance to monitor the environmental spread of AMR within a One Health approach.

Regulation (EU) 625/2017 emphasizes prevention over inspection, assigning primary responsibility for food safety to the food business operator. At the same time, official control systems ensure compliance with the European Union regulations. In recent years, voluntary third-party assurance programs have emerged as a complement to public regulations. This review explores their role, advantages, and challenges within this evolving regulatory landscape. Private standards have expanded rapidly in response to consumer demand for safer and more ethically produced food. While these certifications offer benefits, they also pose challenges, requiring continuous oversight and potential harmonization to ensure reliability. Some European countries now integrate private standards into official controls, recognizing their potential to strengthen regulatory frameworks. Certified food safety management systems, such as the British Retail Consortium or ISO 22000, can complement official control by improving compliance and efficiency. However, discrepancies between official inspections and third-party audits persist, necessitating careful coordination. To ensure effective integration, competent authorities must monitor the performance of private systems through audits and random checks. Despite some challenges, integrating private systems into official controls could be mutually beneficial. Future advancements will depend on effective collaboration among policymakers, industry, regulatory agencies, and other stakeholders, fostering a more robust food safety system.

The growing demand for transparency in the food industry has led to significant advancements in meat traceability. Ensuring the authenticity and origin of meat products is critical for consumer trust, public health, and compliance with regulations. This paper reviews recent innovations in meat traceability, with a focus on blockchain technology as a novel approach to ensuring traceability. Additionally, advanced methods for verifying meat authenticity and origin, such as isotope fingerprinting, DNA analysis, and spectroscopic methods, are discussed. The role of voluntary certification schemes in enhancing traceability and authenticity verification in the meat industry is also explored. The findings highlight the importance of integrating cutting-edge technologies and certification schemes to build a robust and transparent meat supply chain.

Purpose. Salmonella spp. is a pathogen of European and global significance, and pork is a significant source of it. Regulation (EC) No 2073/2005 establishes process hygiene criteria for carcasses, requiring sampling for Salmonella spp., while Regulation (EU) No 217/2014 requires verification by the Competent Authority (CA). Regulation (EU) No 2019/627 includes the detection of Salmonella spp. in carcasses among the specific hazards. Numerous studies have highlighted discrepancies between the results of official sampling and those carried out in self-monitoring. The aim of the study is to compare the data from the CA sampling with those from the Food Business Operator (FBO). Methods. Data relating to an industrial plant in Lombardy specialising in the slaughter of heavy pigs (approximately 700,000 head/year) were analysed. The FBO sampling was conducted from 2012 to 2021; the CA sampling began in November 2014, following the publication of Ministerial Note 31817-P-05/08/2014. In both cases, a non-destructive method was used at four specific sampling sites, in accordance with EC Regulation 2073/2005 and the State-Regions Agreement of 3 March 2016. The analyses were carried out by accredited laboratories in accordance with UNI EN ISO 6579-1:2017. A total of 1,560 samples were analysed by the OSA and 377 by the AC. Results. The discrepancy between the two control systems is confirmed: the prevalence of Salmonella spp. recorded by the OSA (2012–2021) was 3.46%, while that recorded by the AC (2014–2021) was 10.34%. These values are in line with the EFSA report 2024, which reports 4.0% (OSA) and 1.3% (AC) for Italy, and with similar differences in the other 27 Member States. In 2021, in response to some positive results detected by the AC, the OSA adopted, in agreement with the AC, weekly sampling for three series, even though there was no regulatory obligation to do so. In fact, as indicated in Ministerial Note 31817-P-05/08/2014, in the event of one or more positive carcasses, “it can be assumed with a 95% confidence margin that the prevalence of Salmonella in meat is equal to or greater than 6%”, but no action is required on the part of either the CA or the FBO. In such circumstances, the legislation requires the CA to carefully verify the effectiveness of the self-control system to ensure compliance with the limits set. Conclusions. The discrepancy between the results of the CA and the FBO is widespread in the EU. The presence of Salmonella spp. in the intestines and on the skin of pigs, combined with the critical issues of the slaughtering process (scalding, depilation, evisceration), contributes to cross-contamination. Unlike other EU countries, Italy has no sampling plan for fattening farms, nor any incentive system to reduce prevalence in primary production. Furthermore, attributing positivity to a specific farm is methodologically unfeasible due to possible (and in some cases inevitable) cross-contamination. In light of these data, already highlighted in Ministerial Note 20737-P-19/05/2016, it is appropriate to reconsider the effectiveness of the current system of hygiene and health control of slaughter, possibly strengthening interventions in primary production and maintaining self-monitoring sampling as a reliable source of data at national and European level.

Scopo. Salmonella spp. rappresenta un patogeno di rilevanza europea e globale e le carni suine ne costituiscono una fonte significativa. Il Reg. CE 2073/2005 stabilisce criteri di igiene di processo per le carcasse, prevedendo il campionamento per la ricerca di Salmonella spp., mentre il Reg. UE 217/2014 impone una verifica da parte dell’Autorità Competente (AC). Il Reg. UE 2019/627 comprende la ricerca di Salmonella spp. sulle carcasse tra i pericoli specifici. Numerosi studi hanno evidenziato discrepanze tra i risultati dei campionamenti ufficiali e quelli effettuati in autocontrollo. Obiettivo dello studio è confrontare i dati dei campionamenti dell’AC con quelli dell’Operatore del Settore Alimentare (OSA). Metodi. Sono stati analizzati i dati relativi ad un impianto industriale lombardo specializzato nella macellazione di suini pesanti (circa 700.000 capi/anno). Il campionamento dell’OSA è stato condotto dal 2012 al 2021; quello dell’AC ha avuto inizio nel novembre 2014, a seguito della pubblicazione della Nota ministeriale 31817-P-05/08/2014. In entrambi i casi è stato impiegato un metodo non distruttivo su 4 siti di prelievo specifici, secondo il Reg. CE 2073/2005 e l’Intesa Stato-Regioni del 03/03/2016. Le analisi sono state eseguite da laboratori con prova accreditata, seguendo la norma UNI EN ISO 6579-1:2017. In totale sono stati analizzati 1560 campioni dall’OSA e 377 dall’AC. Risultati. Si conferma la discordanza tra i due sistemi di controllo: la prevalenza di Salmonella spp. registrata dall’OSA (2012–2021) è stata del 3,46 %, mentre quella rilevata dall’AC (2014–2021) del 10,34 %. Questi valori sono in linea con il report EFSA 2024, che per l’Italia riporta 4,0 % (OSA) e 1,3 % (AC), e con analoghe differenze negli altri 27 Stati membri. Nel 2021, a fronte di alcune positività rilevate dall’AC, l’OSA ha adottato, in accordo con l’AC, un campionamento settimanale per tre serie, pur in assenza di un obbligo normativo. Infatti, come indicato dalla Nota ministeriale 31817-P-05/08/2014, in caso di una o più carcasse positive, “si può ritenere con un margine di confidenza del 95% che la prevalenza della Salmonella nelle carni sia uguale o superiore al 6%”, ma non sono previste azioni né da parte dell’AC, né da parte dell’OSA. In tali circostanze, la normativa prevede che l’AC verifichi attentamente l’efficacia del sistema di autocontrollo per accertare il rispetto dei limiti previsti. Conclusioni. La discrepanza tra i risultati dell’AC e dell’OSA è diffusa in UE. La presenza di Salmonella spp. nell’intestino e sulla cute dei suini, unita alle criticità del processo di macellazione (scottatura, depilazione, eviscerazione), contribuisce alla contaminazione crociata. A differenza di altri paesi UE, in Italia non esiste un piano di campionamento negli allevamenti da ingrasso, né un sistema di incentivazione alla riduzione della prevalenza nella produzione primaria. Inoltre, l’attribuzione della positività a un allevamento specifico è metodologicamente inattuabile, a causa delle possibili (e in alcuni casi, inevitabili) contaminazioni crociate. Alla luce di questi dati, già evidenziati nella Nota ministeriale 20737-P-19/05/2016, è opportuno riconsiderare l’efficacia dell’attuale sistema di controllo igienico-sanitario della macellazione, potenziando eventualmente gli interventi nella produzione primaria e mantenendo il campionamento in autocontrollo come fonte di dati affidabile a livello nazionale ed europeo.

The food business operators (FBOs) hold the main responsibility for food safety, based on the Regulation (EC) No 852/2004 and realized by the application of the hazard analysis and critical control point (HACCP) principles. They should implement a self-checking system (SCS) and may adopt voluntary food safety management system based on international standards, that are believed to strengthen HACCP functioning. Both official controls conducted by the Competent Authorities (CAs) and private voluntary standards play essential roles in maintaining food safety. In addition, customer complaints are highlighted as valuable feedback for FBOs, contributing to continuous improvement efforts. The present study aimed (i) to compare the non-compliances assigned by the CA during official inspections and audits carried out in a large slaughterhouse with the non-conformities registered by the FBO in the SCS during a five-year period, (ii) to evaluate, in the same period of time, the customer complaints managed by the FBO as non-conformities being part of the Food Safety Management System, and (iii) to examine potential overlapping of SCS and official controls. The majority of non-conformities/non-compliances in the slaughterhouse were related to the finding of non-conforming products, maintenance deficiencies, and lack in housekeeping and hygiene. The types of observations varied among the three groups—FBO, CA, and customers—with different areas of focus. Both official controls and SCS are of crucial importance and can sometimes overlap, but the suggestion to reduce the frequency of official inspections should not be considered because such controls have different values and are both crucial. Moreover, those controls should nevertheless be complemented by attentive consideration of customer complaints.

Shiga toxin-producing Escherichia coli (STEC) are zoonotic pathogens frequently carried by cattle, responsible in humans of mild to bloody diarrhoea, haemolytic uraemic syndrome (HUS) and even death. In 2023-2024, a study on STEC contamination of hide and carcasses of dairy cattle at slaughter was planned in Emilia-Romagna region (northern Italy). When the study was still in progress and 60 animals were sampled, the detection of STEC O177 isolates reached high rates and gained our attention. A total of five O177 STEC strains were detected, namely four from three carcasses (5.0 %) and one from a hide sample (1.7 %). The isolates were typed by WGS as following: 1) STEC O177:H11 sequence type (ST) 765 (stx2a+, eae+), detected from one carcass; 2) STEC O177: H25 ST659 (stx2c+, eae+) detected from three carcasses and one hide sample. One carcass was contaminated by both STEC serotypes. The isolates carried other virulence determinants often found in STEC strains associated with HUS, namely the exha, astA and espP genes, together with genes for adhesion to the epithelial cells of the gut (lpfA, fdeC, fimH) and non-Locus for Enterocyte Effacement (LEE) effector protein genes (nleA, nleB). The STEC O177:H11 isolate harboured antimicrobial resistance (AMR) genes to beta-lactams (blaTEM-1A), aminoglycosides (aadA1, aph(3 '')-Ib, aph(6)-Id), trimethoprim (dfrA1), sulphonamides (sul1, sul2), tetracyclines (tetA), (tetB), streptothricin (sat2), and quaternary ammonium compounds (qacEdelta1). On the contrary, the STEC O177:H25 isolates carried no AMR genes. Persistent carriage of STEC O177:H25 ST659 (stx2c+, eae+) at farm level was assessed by testing animals of the same herd sent to slaughter. Interestingly, the colonies of STEC O177:H11 and STEC O177:H25 had different morphology on CHROMagarTM STEC plates, being mauve and colourless, respectively. Since mauve is the colour STEC colonies commonly have on the CHROMagarTM STEC medium, our findings can help microbiologists in the selection of uncommon serotypes. To the best of our knowledge, this is the first detection of STEC O177 from carcasses and hides of dairy cattle at slaughter. Noteworthy, the STEC-positive hide was classified as "very dirty" thus stressing the need of clean animals entering the slaughter chain, as required by Regulation (EC) No 853/2004. Since STEC O177 has been responsible of HUS in Europe, our data could add information on the source of uncommon serogroups in human infections.

This study introduces the application of a novel, rapid, and non-destructive method employing portable nearinfrared (NIR) spectroscopy to assess the freshness and viability of live mussels throughout their shelf-life. NIR spectra ranging from 908 to 1676 nm were collected from 150 Mediterranean mussels (Mytilus galloprovincialis, L.) over a 10-day storage period. Simultaneously, measurements of weight loss, intravalvular liquid pH, and nonprotein nitrogen levels were taken. A predictive model was established by correlating the multivariate information derived from NIR spectral data with days of storage under refrigerated conditions using orthogonal partial least squares regression (OPLSR) analysis. While physical and chemical parameters (except for gradual weight loss due to water leakage) showed no distinct trends throughout storage, the fourth derivativepreprocessed NIR spectra enabled the construction of an OPLSR model that, following cross-validation, exhibited a correlation coefficient of 0.86 and, following external validation with new mussel samples, an average accuracy (root mean square error of prediction) of just 1.3 days. The predictive power of the model was primarily attributed to specific NIR wavelengths associated with key chemical features, including unsaturated fatty acids, nitrogen compounds, water content, glycerol, and ATP-related compounds that, collectively, constituted a distinctive fingerprint for forecasting mussel storage duration. The performance of the tool, along with its environmentally friendly, non-invasive, real-time, and cost-effective characteristics, align with industry control procedures and inspection needs, allowing effective freshness and viability assessment of live mussels across the food supply chain.

Enterococci are considered valuable sentinel Gram-positive bacteria for monitoring vancomycin antibiotic resistance due to their widespread presence and characteristics. The use of antimicrobials in farming animals has a role in the increasing of Antimicrobial Resistance (AMR) and the anthropogenic transformation of the landscape has forced wildlife into greater contact with humans and their livestock. The transmission of resistant bacteria by their meat products is a significant contributor to AMR development.The present study aimed to assess the prevalence of vancomycin resistant Enterococci spp. In antimicrobial-treated farmed pigs meat and in antimicrobial-free wild boars meat.A total of 341 Enterococci were isolated from 598 pork meat samples (57 %) and 173 Enterococci were isolated from 404 wild boar meat samples (42.8 %). Data found showed that low-resistance was detected more in wild boars meat Enterococci (52.6 %) than in pork meat once (48.4 %). However, the prevalence of resistance genes was at low level (33.9 % in pork meat Enterococci and 4.4 % in wild boar meat ones) and the only gene found was vanC1/C2, related to intrinsic AMR. Normally, Enterococci persist in the normal intestinal flora of animals including humans. However, the presence of resistance genes was frequently linked to the detection of pathogenic genes, mostly gelE in pork meat isolates and asa1 in wild boars meat isolates. Pathogenic bacteria can cause severe infections in human that can become more risky if associated to the presence of AMR. Pathogenic bacteria were characterized and a high presence of E. gallinarum and E. casseliflavus was found.Given the growing interest in wild game meat consumption the monitoring of AMR in these matrices is essential. Further surveillance studies are needed to fully evaluate the emergence and spread of vancomycin-resistant Enterococci (VRE) and pathogenic Enterococci from animal-derived food to humans, including the role of wildlife in this phenomenon. Giving the higher interest in wild animals meat consumption, it is important to better evaluate the spread of AMR phenomenon in the future and intensify hygienic control of wild animals derived food.

Salmonella contamination in pig slaughterhouses is linked to infection rate on farms. Accurate diagnosis in heavy pigs relies on isolating pathogens from the gut wall or lymph nodes. A key technique is Immunocapture using Magnetic Beads (IMS), which purifies target bacteria from Salmonella enrichment broths. This is followed by an Enzyme-Linked Immunomagnetic Electrochemical (ELIME) assay for rapid detection. In our study, we developed an ELIME-IMS hybrid assay to detect Salmonella in swine mesenteric lymph nodes (MNL), involving a clean-up with N-acetylcysteine and centrifugation. Detection limits for S. Typhimurium and S. Derby were estimated at 2.80 and 3.52 Log CFU/ml, respectively. We analysed 103 MNL samples from a northern Italy slaughterhouse. Additionally, we examined 15 carcass swabs. Both the ELIME assay and the IMS-based culture method showed strong agreement with the ISO 6579-1:2017 method, especially after 20 h of enrichment (89.47% concordance). The clean-up step significantly influenced the results, as samples processed without it showed higher variability. A logistic regression model indicated high classification accuracy for negative samples using ELIME values. The ELIME-IMS assay facilitates rapid Salmonella screening and isolation in swine mesenteric lymph nodes.

The study assessed the role of equids at slaughter as faecal carriers of Salmonella enterica and the occurrence of contaminated equid carcasses during the slaughter process in Northern Italy (Emilia-Romagna Region). From June to November 2021, 152 equids (146 horses, 5 donkeys and 1 mule) were tested for Salmonella both in caecal contents and through carcass swabs. Antimicrobial resistance (AMR) of recovered strains was tested against 15 antimicrobials. Salmonella was detected in 3/152 of the caecal contents (2.0 %), while all carcass samples were negative. S. enterica serovars Enteriditis, Typhimurium and Stanleyville were identified. The only AMR isolate was S. Typhimurium with AMR profile AmCStxT. Considering the consumption of raw horse meat (i.e., minced raw meat named "pesto di cavallo" and dried and smoked strips named "sfilacci di cavallo") in different areas of Northern Italy, we also investigated the possible link between horse meat eating and salmonellosis cases in the human population in the same area. Specifically, we compared the Salmonella strains collected during the study with those routinely processed in the laboratory surveillance system for human salmonellosis in Emilia-Romagna (a region with about 4.5 million inhabitants). The comparison was based on whole genome sequencing data through core genome multi-locus sequence typing (cgMLST) used in routine surveillance. A genomic match in cgMLST was found between the strain of S. enterica serovar Enteritidis isolated from a horse caecal content and an enduring outbreak of 17 human cases in Emilia-Romagna during the study period. The consequent epidemiological investigation highlighted that a number of cases with known food history reported the consumption of horse meat and traced different batches of the consumed meat, released weeks apart from each other, to the slaughter investigated in the study. The results of the epidemiological investigation suggested the role of horses in the S. enterica serovar Enteritidis outbreak affecting raw horse meat consumers.This study shows that, despite the low prevalence on equid carcasses, S. enterica in horse meat can represent a risk to consumers. From the perspective of the slaughter activities, this highlights the need to maintain a high level of hygiene during the entire process, starting from the hygiene at lairage up to the slaughtering phase and dressing of carcasses.

Respiratory diseases significantly affect intensive pig farming, causing production losses and increased antimicrobial use. Accurate classification of lung lesions is crucial for effective diagnostics and disease management. The integration of non-destructive and rapid techniques would be beneficial to enhance overall efficiency in addressing these challenges. This study investigates the potential of near-infrared (NIR) spectroscopy in classifying pig lung tissues. The NIR spectra (908–1676 nm) of 101 lungs from weaned pigs were analyzed using a portable instrument and subjected to multivariate analysis. Two distinct discriminant models were developed to differentiate normal (N), congested (C), and pathological (P) lung tissues, as well as catarrhal bronchopneumonia (CBP), fibrinous pleuropneumonia (FPP), and interstitial pneumonia (IP) patterns. Overall, the model tailored for discriminating among pathological lesions demonstrated superior classification performances. Major challenges arose in categorizing C lungs, which exhibited a misclassification rate of 30% with N and P tissues, and FPP samples, with 30% incorrectly recognized as CBP samples. Conversely, IP and CBP lungs were all identified with accuracy, precision, and sensitivity higher than 90%. In conclusion, this study provides a promising proof of concept for using NIR spectroscopy to recognize and categorize pig lungs with different pathological lesions, offering prospects for efficient diagnostic strategies.

Antimicrobial resistance (AMR) is a risk for public health that requires management in a One Health perspective, including humans, animals, and the environment. The food production chain has been identified as a possible route of transmission of AMR bacteria to humans. The most critical issue regards resistance to the Critically Important Antimicrobials (CIAs), such as β-lactams antibiotics. Here, pigs were analysed along the entire food producing chain, including feces, carcasses and pork products (fresh meat, fermented and seasoned products) ensuring treaciability of all samples. Escherichia coli were isolated and their ability to produce ESBL and AmpC β-lactamases was evaluated both phenotypically and genotypically. Strains with the same AMR profile from feces, carcasses, and meat products were selected for phylogenetic and comparative genomic analyses to evaluate the possible "farm-to-fork" transmission of β-lactams resistant bacteria. Results showed that the percentage of ESBL strains in fecal E. coli was approximately 7% and increased slightly in the pork food chain: the 10% of ESBL E. coli isolated from carcasses and the 12.5% of isolates from fresh meat products. AmpC E. coli were found only in feces, carcasses, and fresh meat with a low prevalence. Results showed that of the 243 pigs followed along the entire food chain genetic similarities in E. coli isolated from farm-to-fork were found in only one pig (feces, carcasses and fresh meat). Frequent similarities were shown in resistant E. coli isolates from carcasses and fresh meat or fermented product (three pork food chain). Moreover, in one case, bacteria isolated from fresh meat and fermented product were genotypically similar. Concluding, direct transmission of β-lactams resistance from farm-to-fork is possible but not frequent. Further studies are needed to improve risk communication to consumers and access to clear and reliable information and health concerns on food.

In recent years, due to the globalization of food trade and certified agro-food products, the authenticity and traceability of food have received increasing attention. As a result, opportunities for fraudulent practices arise, highlighting the need to protect consumers from economic and health damages. In this regard, specific analytical techniques have been optimized and implemented to support the integrity of the food chain, such as those targeting different isotopes and their ratios. This review article explores the scientific progress of the last decade in the study of the isotopic identity card of food of animal origin, provides the reader with an overview of its application, and focuses on whether the combination of isotopes with other markers increases confidence and robustness in food authenticity testing. To this purpose, a total of 135 studies analyzing fish and seafood, meat, eggs, milk, and dairy products, and aiming to examine the relation between isotopic ratios and the geographical provenance, feeding regime, production method, and seasonality were reviewed. Current trends and major research achievements in the field were discussed and commented on in detail, pointing out advantages and drawbacks typically associated with this analytical approach and arguing future improvements and changes that need to be made to recognize it as a standard and validated method for fraud mitigation and safety control in the sector of food of animal origin.

Antimicrobial resistance (AMR) is a public health risk that needs to be faced from a One Health perspective that includes humans, animals, and environmental health. The food production chain has been identified as a possible route of transmission of AMR bacteria to humans. The most critical phenomenon is related to Critically Important Antimicrobial (CIA) resistance. β-lactams antibiotics (cephalosporin of 3rd, 4th generation, carbapenem, monobactams, and penicillins), quinolones, aminoglycosides, polymyxin, and glycylcyclines were the CIAs chosen in this study. Samples derived from all the stages of the pork food production chain were collected, including pig feces, carcasses, and pork food products (fresh meat, fermented, and seasoned). Escherichia coli were isolated, and AMR and MDR profiles were evaluated. Enterobacterial Repetitive Intragenic Consensus (ERIC-PCR) was used to evaluate phylogenetic similarities. Data showed that 50% of phenotypical AMR observed in the entire pork food chain were related phylogenetically. The contamination of fresh meat, in half of the cases, was not directly related to contamination from feces or carcasses. Despite this, some similarities were found between feces and carcasses. In group analysis, phylogenetic similarities were detected in a 3/36 cluster (8.3%). Nevertheless, further studies are needed to improve consumer risk communication and access to clear and reliable information and health concerns on food labels.

Gastric lesions in pigs cause welfare and economic losses. Their prevalence in heavy pigs reared for premium products (e.g., Parma ham) requires further investigation. Stress, nutrition, and farm management are known risk factors, but the effects of steroidal and non-steroidal anti-inflammatory drugs (NSAIDs) are largely unknown. The aim of this study was to evaluate the prevalence of gastric lesions in Italian heavy pigs and their possible association with the use of anti-inflammatory drugs. A total of 9371 pig stomachs from 76 farms were evaluated. Among these, 20.3% showed no lesions, while 30.7%, 42.1%, and 6.8% were scored 1, 2 and 3, respectively. A tendency for an inverse relationship with farm size emerged. The use of steroids and NSAIDs was estimated by calculating a treatment incidence per 1000 (TI1000) in a subset of 36 farms. At least one prescription for NSAIDs and/or steroids was found in 80.6% of the farms (55.6% used NSAIDs and 63.9% used steroids). Median TI1000 was 0.07 (range: 0–30.1) and 0.18 (range: 0–6.2) for NSAIDs and steroids, respectively. Gastric scores were positively associated with NSAID use, but not with steroid use. Although the role of these drugs in gastric lesions needs to be further clarified, these findings suggest a cautious use of non-selective NSAIDs.