Indigenous Chicken (IC) keeping in Kenya is predominantly based on an extensive system that is characterized by high mortality rates, resulting mainly from disease outbreaks and predation. Information on farmers' risk attitudes is scarce despite the risks inherent in IC production systems. Similarly, it is unclear how socioeconomic factors influence IC farmers' risk attitudes and how their risk attitudes influence IC productivity. As a result, an understanding of the determinants of farmers' risk attitude and the effects of risk attitude on IC productivity are critical. Primary data were collected using a structured questionnaire. Multi-stage sampling procedure was used to sample 240 IC farmers from an accessible population of 598 chicken farmers in Nyanza region. Ordinary least squares regression analysis was carried out to determine the influence of the socio-economic variables on the risk attitudes of the IC farmers, and a two-stage least squares regression analysis was used to determine the effect of risk attitude on IC productivity. Total land size, family size, occupation of the farmer, and total household expenditure had a positive and significant influence on the risk aversion behavior of the farmers. Farming experience, number of chickens, and cost of depreciation had a negative impact on risk aversion. The risk aversion coefficient had a negative and significant relationship with chicken productivity. Farmers' risk attitude and socioeconomic characteristics should be considered part of the guide to formulating and implementing policy on risk management.

Kericho is one of the forty-seven counties of Kenya and one that is characterized with steep areas prone to soil erosion. A number of organizations have for a long time promoted soil conservation technologies in soil erosion prone parts of Kenya. The paper provides findings of a study carried out to analyze the factors affecting adoption of the various soil conservation technologies by farmers. Cross sectional data was collected from respondents who were selected using multistage sampling procedure. Data was collected from a random sample of 115 farmers in Kericho County. Questionnaires were used to collect primary data from selected households. The binomial logit models were used to analyze the factors believed to affect adoption of the selected soil conservation technologies. Most of the variables postulated to affect the promoted soil conservation practices were found to be statistically significant in determining adoption of the promoted soil conservation technologies. Based on the study findings, it can be said that economic, social and cultural factors are important in soil conservation promotion strategies and should be considered in implementation and sustainable use of soil conservation technology. Soil conservation and other environmental conservation efforts are controversial issues that politicians rarely talk about in political rallies. Since politicians hold a high position in the eyes of farmers, they should be encouraged to support environmental conservation through championing soil conservation support efforts. Keywords: Binomial Logit, Factors, Adoption, Soil Conservation . DOI: 10.7176/EJBM/14-5-01 Publication date: March 31 st 2022

Food systems of the future that will guarantee food and nutrition security of millions of poor farming households will have to be both economically and socially diverse. Diversity of farming systems acts as a catalyst for innovation, commercialisation as well as technology adoption. This study sought to find farm typologies and explore the social, enterprise and economic diversity of the various farm types based on a promoted Growing Bananas with Trees and Livestock (GBTL) technology system that was implemented by National Agricultural Research Organisation and Bioversity International in three districts of Central Uganda, Kiboga, Nakaseke and Ssembabule. Using Principal Component Analysis (PCA) and Cluster Analysis (CA), typologies were created in which two distinct clusters of farming households were revealed. Further analysis of the clusters through Food Consumption Scores, food classes, and other descriptive statistics indicated that the two clusters were socially and economically diverse. Findings indicated that Cluster 1 is made up of smaller farms with high crop diversity. Families in Cluster 1 sell more of their produce and subsequently have lower food security compared to the land-abundant, off-farm earning and more food secure Cluster 2. We failed to reject the hypothesis that socially and economically diverse farmers adopt technologies more given that the level of GBTL adoption was about 25% and about 70% for Banana + Goats within both clusters.

Available literature shows that most famers abandon promoted soil conservation technologies soon after financial and technical supports cease.This is because technologies are launched without serious evaluation of factors affecting continued use of adopted technologies.This paper provides an analysis of the factors that influence the decision by farmers who have adopted soil conservation technologies to continue maintaining soil conservation structures once promotion support cease.Initial adoption of soil conservation is normally made easy by subsidies that aid in technology establishment.Extension agents are facilitated to educate farmers on the need to conserve soil.Soil conservation once established need to be maintained to serve the purpose of soil conservation.In the 1990s soil conservation subsidy was withdrawn with expectation that farmers would continue maintaining adopted soil conservation technologies.However, most farmers abandoned soil conservation structures as soon as conservation subsidy was withdrawn.A study was carried out in Kericho County to analyze factors believed to determine continued adoption of promoted soil conservation practices when subsidies are withdrawn.A random sample of 85 farmers was selected from Kericho County.Questionnaires were used to collect primary data from selected households.A lot of information on soil conservation efforts was sought from Lake Victoria Environmental Management Programme reports.The findings of the indicated that some of the analyzed variables significantly affected continued use of technologies.It is recommended that factors that were significant be considered in policy formulations related to sustainable use of soil conservation technologies.There is need to educate farmers to understand the role of soil conservation technologies in improved agricultural production so that farmers see the need to maintain the technologies.

Several studies have been done to determine factors affecting adoption of new technologies. However, few or no studies have been carried out to determine factors believed to affect use level of recommended technology packages. Majority of farmers in the study area had used farmyard manure in crop production. Framers however used suboptimal levels resulting in low crop yields. This happens despite the fact that farmers are aware of the recommended levels needed for appreciable yields to be realized. Studies need to be done to determine why farmers use suboptimal levels of farmyard materials in the study area. The study analyzed the factors believed to affect intensity of use of farmyard fertilizers with the aim of identifying the role each factor plays in determining level of use of farmyard fertilizers among smallholder farmers. Stratified random sampling was used to select respondents. A total of 120 farmers were selected to provide data needed for the study. Data was collected from three out of six divisions of Vihiga County. At least 30 farmers were selected from each division. Primary data was collected using questionnaires and data collected was analyzed using regression analysis. The results of the analysis indicated that a number of factors were significant in determining use levels of farmyard manure. Out of the ten factors believed to affect use intensity of farmyard manure, five were statistically significant at 95% confidence level. The results of the regression analysis showed that education level of decision-maker, farm size, income of household, availability of labor and access to manure were significant at 95% level in explaining use intensity of farmyard manure in the study area. The study recommended that factors affecting use levels of farm yard manure be addressed with the aim improving the amounts used in order to bridge the gap between the current use level and the recommended level of farmyard fertilizers among smallholder farmers. Keywords: Factors affecting, Use Levels, Farmyard Manure, Kenya DOI: 10.7176/JESD/12-24-05 Publication date: December 31 st 2021

The majority of smallholder maize farmers in the study area depend on farming whose returns are very low. This, together with low soil fertility and the inability of farmers to purchase chemical fertilizers, has resulted in the undertaking of research on non-conventional fertilizers, mainly organic fertilizers, by researchers in research institutions, universities, and NGOs. Researchers have registered high yield responses to the use of non-conventional fertilizers in demonstration farms and extension agents have been tasked with promoting the use of the fertilizers. Studies have shown that emphasis was put on informing farmers of the ability of the fertilizers to improve yields. Despite the high yields in research settings, smallholder farmers have continued to witness low crop yields. This begs the question, why was this the case? The purpose of this study was to analyze the promoted non-conventional fertilizers with the aim of determining whether there were significant profitability differences between their use and the use of inorganic fertilizers among smallholder farmers. The objective of this study was to carry out a comparative profitability analysis of the commonly used fertilizers, namely: inorganic fertilizers, farmyard, compost, agroforestry, and Thithonia difersifolia promoted in the study area. Stratified random sampling was used to select 150 respondents from Vihiga County, Kenya. Farmers were stratified into five strata based on the type of fertilizer that the farmers used, and at least 30 farmers were selected from each strata. Primary data was collected using questionnaires and the data collected was analyzed using net present value and gross margins. The results of the evaluation of the technologies on food production indicated that there were significant profitability differences at a 5% level between the use of non-conventional fertilizers and that of inorganic fertilizers. The study recommended that farmers be educated on the economics of the use of non-conventional fertilizers in order to enable them to select the most economically efficient technology. An economic analysis should also be done to determine the profitability of the use of non-conventional fertilizers on high-value crops such as vegetables and fruits. Maize/bean intercrop formed the basis of profitability analyses in this study because most farmers used them on the maize/ bean intercrop. Net present value profitability analysis should also be done on the use of organic materials on perennial crops such as fruits.

In the face of skyrocketing prices of inorganic fertilizers, organic materials are considered the alternative sources of fertilizers. Research institutions have over the years succeeded in demonstrating high yield responses to recommended usage of organic fertilizers. Furthermore, organic fertilizer (biofertilizers) is a vital component of sustainable agriculture. The sound management of organic fertilization must attempt to ensure both an enhanced and safeguarded environment. Most Farmers in Vihiga County have adopted use of organic fertilizers. Despite this, crop yields remain low in farmers’ fields due to low soil fertility and inability of farmers to optimally use organic fertilizers. Researchers often use optimal organic materials recording high yields in experimental and farm demonstration fields. Little or no research has been done to determine why farmers still record low yields despite a lot of extension outreaches to promote available organic matter technology packages in the study area. This paper reports findings of a study carried out to determine factors that limit optimal use of organic fertilizer by farmers in Vihiga County, Kenya. The objective of the study was to compare organic fertilizer usage in farmers’ field with optimal (recommended) rates to determine if the usage were significantly different. This was aimed at providing advice based on empirical evidence to farmers on whether there is need to improve usages of organic fertilizer and to determine if low intensity of organic fertilizer was a possible cause of recorded low yields in farmers’ fields. Purposive sampling was used to select farmers who were using organic fertilizer for soil fertility. A total of 120 farmers were selected to provide data needed for the study. Primary data was collected using questionnaires and data was analyzed using descriptive statistic (t-test). The results of the analysis indicated a significant difference in the usage between what farmers applied and what was recommended by research. Usages of organic fertilizer among the sampled farmers were much lower than the recommended levels explaining the low maize yields among farmers in the study area. The study rejected the hypothesis that the farmers’ usages of organic fertilizer was not statistically significant different from that recommended by research institutions. This is because average usage of organic fertilizer of 320.3 kg/ha was significantly below those recommended by researcher of 5ton/ha (at 99% usage. Farmers must follow appropriate promoted technology recommendations. The study recommended promotion of organic fertilizer. Farmers should be sensitized on the need to bridge the gap between the current and the recommended usage for them to realize the benefits of organic fertilizer.

Whereas a number of studies have used value chains approach to look at critical constraints that limited the growth of milk production and marketing, none of the studies considered starting by establishing the status of support services provision to individual producer household level so as to lead to accurate constraints identification for sustainable policy and technical intervention. This study undertook to identify and analyze coordination mechanisms that had been developed to support producer households around community milk cooling plants using factor analysis approach. Primary data from 273 households selected through simple random sampling method was collected using a semi structured interview schedule. From the results, the varimax rotation process generated three factors which based on the loadings were named as support for training, support for inputs and support for marketing respectively. Cronbach’s α test results confirmed that the coordination mechanisms that existed strongly formed support for input and support for training. Keywords: Community Milk Cooling Plant , Factor Analysis, Producers, Support Services

Indigenous chicken (IC) contribute significantly to income and food security of rural communities. However, the IC are kept in systems that are characterised by high risk conditions such as diseases, predation, inadequate feeding and poor housing resulting in sub optimal production levels and profitability. Agricultural insurance therefore becomes an attractive option of minimizing these risks. Uptake of agricultural insurance on IC remains low in Kenya. Furthermore, information on agricultural insurance as a tool of minimizing risk is limited. The objective of the study was to investigate IC farmers’ attitude towards agricultural insurance with the aim of providing important information to insurance firms and compensation schemes targeting IC. Structured questionnaire was used to collect primary data from 240 IC farmers in Nyanza region using a multi stage sampling procedure. Mean score from a five point Likert type scale was used to analyze agricultural insurance attitude of IC farmers. Results established that IC farmers had a positive attitude towards agricultural insurance. Farmers indicated that agricultural production was faced with a variety of risks and uncertainty and that insurance was beneficial and reduces production related stress. However, they were willing to pay for an insurance scheme publicly owned and that agricultural insurance should be mandatory. Therefore, the study recommends that government and non-governmental organization need to sensitize IC farmers on the importance of agricultural insurance policy. Insurance firms need to reach out to the farmers on their role in mitigating risk, offer their products and services and charge affordable insurance premium to them. Key words: Insurance, attitude, indigenous chicken.

Market participation in sub-Saharan Africa has been assessed mainly based on already producing households by looking at whether they sold or not, and if they sold, what quantities. The objective of this study was to determine the socio economic factors that influenced households’ decisions on market participation in terms of dairy cow ownership and quantity of milk sold while taking into consideration the non-producers using Heckman two stage model. The model allowed for not only determination of the effects of household characteristics on volume of milk surplus sold by already producing households but also drew inferences on the effect of household characteristics on probabilities of dairy cow ownership whileadding new information to literature by generating the truncation effect. A multistage sampling technique was used to select 544 producer and non-producer households and primary data collected using a semi structured interview schedule through personal interviews. From the results, probit marginal effects for dairy cow ownership were associated positively and statistically significant with household size, the level of education and land size owned by the households. The Heckman selection estimates revealed that increased number of dairy cows per household positively influenced the volumes of milk sold, while household size influenced negatively the quantity of milk sold. In conclusion, milk sales conditional on dairy cow ownership suffered from negative selectivity bias whereby a household with sample average characteristics who selected into dairy cow ownership secured 40% lower quantity of milk sold than would a household drawn at random.

In Kenya, arid and semi-arid lands (ASALs), comprise some 80% of the country and are characterized by high rates of food insecurity, natural resources degradation and unsustainable land management practices. This has led to a significant disruption of bio-diversity resulting in adverse impact on traditional food sources, income and other basic needs of many rural households, thereby leaving many households depending on the markets as their main source of food. Therefore, careful examination of food demand trends among the rural households serves as a precursor to effective planning, monitoring and evaluation of interventions as well as targeting assistance effectively. Guided by neoclassical theory of consumer demand, of a negative relationship between the quantities demanded and product’s price, the study employed Linear Approximate Almost Ideal Demand System (LA/AIAIDS) model, applying Iterative Seemingly Unrelated Regression Procedure (ITSUR) to study food demand in Laikipia County, Kenya. The results indicate that food commodities are price inelastic; Maize, beans, meat and milk are necessities while fruits and vegetables and other foods (which include wheat products, rice, potatoes, sweet potatoes, millet and sorghum) are luxuries. The results suggests that income rather than price oriented policies will be more significant in addressing food insecurity. Secondly, food price regimes that support both supply and demand sides need to be applied for food security to be achieved; and lastly, the impact of demographic variables such as household size, education level of household head, gender and occupation should be considered in policy formulation.

In Kenya, arid and semi-arid lands (ASALs), comprise some 80% of the country and are characterized by high rates of food insecurity, natural resources degradation and unsustainable land management practices. This has led to a significant disruption of bio-diversity resulting in adverse impact on traditional food sources, income and other basic needs of many rural households, thereby leaving many households depending on the markets as their main source of food. Therefore, careful examination of food demand trends among the rural households serves as a precursor to effective planning, monitoring and evaluation of interventions as well as targeting assistance effectively. Guided by neoclassical theory of consumer demand, of a negative relationship between the quantities demanded and product’s price, the study employed Linear Approximate Almost Ideal Demand System (LA/AIAIDS) model, applying Iterative Seemingly Unrelated Regression Procedure (ITSUR) to study food demand in Laikipia County, Kenya. The results indicate that food commodities are price inelastic; Maize, beans, meat and milk are necessities while fruits and vegetables and other foods (which include wheat products, rice, potatoes, sweet potatoes, millet and sorghum) are luxuries. The results suggests that income rather than price oriented policies will be more significant in addressing food insecurity. Secondly, food price regimes that support both supply and demand sides need to be applied for food security to be achieved; and lastly, the impact of demographic variables such as household size, education level of household head, gender and occupation should be considered in policy formulation.

Many developing countries today face major challenges with regard to food security due to changes in rural land use, coupled with population pressure. One of the ways Kenya has responded to this is by teaching agriculture at various levels of education especially secondary school level. Little has been done, however, to establish whether or not there is any significant difference in agricultural productivity between farmers who graduate with secondary school agriculture knowledge and those without as a way of building farm capability, hence the study. The study adopted the proportionate sampling technique, where a sub-sample of farmers from a target population of those farmers with secondary school agriculture knowledge and those without this knowledge and a total of 200 farmers where interviewed. Results showed that farmers with secondary school agriculture knowledge performed significantly better than those without the secondary school agriculture knowledge and thus have higher levels of food security indicators in crop productivity, management and level of household food security. The study shows how secondary school agriculture knowledge not only broadens farmers' capacity, but also makes them more effective, self reliant, resourceful and capable of solving farming problems and as a result, significantly improves their crop productivity and hence guarantee food security for the family. The challenge for the teaching profession is finding out the best teaching methods as approaches both in and out of class.

A cross-sectional analysis was carried out to evaluate how farmers in Kyuso District have perceived climate change. Data was collected from 246 farmers from six locations sampled out through a multistage and simple random sampling procedure. The logistic regression analysis was carried out to assess factors influencing farmers’ perceptions of climate change. The analysis revealed that 94% of farmers in Kyuso District had a perception that climate was changing. In this regard, age of the household head, gender, education, farming experience, household size, distance to the nearest input/output market, access to irrigation water, local agro-ecology, access to information on climate change, access to extension services, off farm income and change in temperature and precipitation were found to have significant influence on the probability of farmers to perceive climate change. Since the level of perception to climate change revealed by the study was found to be high (94%), the study suggests that more policy efforts should thus be geared towards helping farmers to adapt to climate change.

The study was carried out to assess how farmers in Kyuso District have adapted to the effects of climate change. Survey data was collected from 246 farmers from six locations that were sampled out through a multistage and simple random sampling procedure. The probit regression model was fitted into the data in order to assess factors influencing farmers’ adaptation to the effects of climate change. The analysis revealed that 85% of the farmers had adapted in various ways to the effects of climate change. In this regard, the age of the farmer, gender, education, farming experience, farm income, access to climate information, household size, local agro-ecology, distance to input/output market, access to credit, access to water for irrigation, precipitation and temperature were found to have significant influence on the probability of farmers to adapt to climate change. The study suggests that more policy efforts should thus be geared towards helping all the farmers in the district to adapt to climate change. Key words : climate change, adaptation, probit regression model, Kyuso District.