Sindirim sistemi, memeliler ve kuş türleri arasında belirgin farklılıklar göstermektedir. Basit mide yapısına sahip hayvanlar bu açıdan tek mideliler (monogastrikler) veya ruminant olmayanlar (non-ruminantlar) olarak tanımlanır. Bu hayvanlarda sindirim, çoğunlukla mide ve bağırsak enzimlerinin etkinliğiyle gerçekleşirken, mikrobiyal katkı sınırlı düzeyde kalmaktadır. Çoğu hayvan, steril bir ortamda bulunmadığından, sindirim sistemleri mikrobiyal topluluklarla simbiyotik bir ilişki geliştirmiştir. Bu mikroorganizmalar genellikle ince bağırsağın alt bölümleri ve kalın bağırsakta yoğunlaşmakta olup, besinlerin parçalanmasına ve fermente edilmesine katkı sağlamaktadır. Bazı türlerde ise sindirim kanalının üst kısımları, hayvan tarafından doğrudan sindirilemeyen bileşenlerin mikrobiyal faaliyetler aracılığıyla parçalanmasına imkân tanıyacak biçimde evrimsel uyum göstermiştir. Sindirim kavramı genel olarak, yemlerin emilime uygun hâle getirilmesi süreci olarak tanımlanabilir. Çeşitli organlar, bezler ve yardımcı yapıların ortak işlevleri sonucunda gerçekleşen karmaşık bir biyolojik olay olan bu süreç; çiğneme hareketleri ve sindirim kanalındaki kasların ritmik kasılmaları gibi mekanik işlemleri, mide asidi ile ince bağırsakta salgılanan safra gibi salgıların etkisiyle gerçekleşen kimyasal tepkimeleri, ayrıca sindirim sisteminin farklı bölgelerinden veya mikroorganizmalar tarafından üretilen enzimatik aktiviteleri kapsamaktadır. Tüm bu mekanik, kimyasal ve biyolojik olayların temel amacı, yemlerin yapı taşlarını emilebilecek kadar küçük moleküllere dönüştürmek veya çözünür hâle getirmektir.

In this study, the authors substituted alfalfa hay with factory black tea waste (FBTW) in dairy cattle total mixed ration (TMR) and subsequently tested its effects on in-vitro carbon dioxide and methane production, metabolizable energy (ME), organic matter digestibility (OMD), net energy lactation (NEL), microbial protein production (MP) and Daisy incubator digestibility parame-ters. Experimental diets included 0% (TW0), 25% (TW1), 50% (TW2) and 75% (TW3) FBTW sub-stituted alfalfa hay in dairy cattle TMR rations. Substitution of alfalfa hay with FBTW in TMR linearly decreased in-vitro GP, methane, ME, NEL and OMD values (P<0.05), and linearly in-creased true dry matter digestibility (TDMD), partition factor (PF) and microbial protein pro-duction efficiency (MPSE) values (p<0.05). Organic matter (IVOMD), in-vitro true dry matter (IVTDMD), and NDF digestibility (IVNDFD) values, determined in the Daisy II incubator, were decreased by substituting FBTW for alfalfa hay in TMR (p<0.05). Substitution of alfalfa hay by FBTW up to 50% in TMR as an alternative roughage source in ruminant animal nutrition can be beneficial yet in-vivo studies are required for a solid conclusion.

Beslenme; yiyeceklerin gastrointestinal sistemde fiziksel ve kimyasal olarak parçalanması, besinlerin emilerek metabolik süreçlere katılması ve atıkların uzaklaştırılmasıyla sonuçlanan karmaşık bir biyolojik olaydır. Gastrointestinal sistem, sindirim ve bağışıklık işlevlerini birlikte yürüten, ağızdan anüse kadar uzanan bir yapıdır. Sindirim süreci; mekanik hareketler, enzimatik reaksiyonlar ve mikrobiyal etkileşimlerle gerçekleşir. Motilite, içeriklerin taşınması ve karıştırılmasında rol oynar. Yapısal katmanlar ve yardımcı organlar sindirime katkı sağlar. Bağırsak mikrobiyotası ve GİS’in erken gelişimi, hayvan beslemede verimlilik açısından kritik öneme sahiptir. Gastrointestinal sistemde gözlemlenen motilite, sindirim sürecinin temel fizyolojik bileşenlerinden biridir. Motilitenin başlıca işlevleri; alınan besinlerin bağırsak boyunca taşınmasını sağlamak, içeriklerin sindirim salgılarıyla karıştırılarak emici yüzeylere sunulmasını kolaylaştırmak, belirli bölgelerde geçici depolamayı mümkün kılmak, fizyolojik koşullar dışında geriye doğru hareketi engellemek ve oluşan kalıntıların sistemden uzaklaştırılmasını sağlamaktır. GİS, bağımsız çalışan organlardan oluşan bir yapı değil; işlevsel olarak bütünleşmiş, etkileşim halindeki organlardan oluşan üniter bir sistemdir. Bu bütünlük, sindirim sürecinin koordinasyonunu ve verimliliğini artırır. Motilitenin türler arası karşılaştırmalı değerlendirilmesi, hem evrimsel adaptasyon stratejilerinin anlaşılmasında hem de beslenme fizyolojisinin daha derinlemesine kavranmasında önemli bir bilimsel zemin sunar. Bu bağlamda, motilite yalnızca mekanik bir süreç değil, aynı zamanda organizmanın çevresel ve metabolik gereksinimlerine uyum sağlayan dinamik bir düzenleme mekanizmasıdır.

IntroductionThe purpose of this study was to investigate how in vitro gas production (GP) and ruminal fermentation characteristics were affected by increasing concentrations of green algae plant (C. reinhardtii) extracts in combination with nanoparticles MgO and MgS.MethodsA solution containing 0.1 M MgCl2 was prepared in 300 mL for the green production of MgCl nanoparticles. The mixture was refluxed for two hours at 85°C using a reflux condenser after 10 mL of pomegranate plant extract was added. The green algal plant (C. reinhardtii), which has many non-toxic antioxidants, was used as a carbon source to produce carbon quantum dots (CQD). Chemical analysis was conducted in accordance with AOAC (2005) recommendations. Rumen fluid from recently slaughtered calves is used to produce in vitro gas immediately following slaughter. Analysis of variance (ANOVA) was performed on the obtained data from the in vitro study in a completely randomized design using the mixed model of SAS (version 9.4; Inc., Cary NC, USA).Results and DiscussionThe variance analysis results and the average values of the chemical compositions were significantly influenced by the extracts (all p < 0.0001). In this line, the values of net gas, pH, OMD, ME, NEl, and ME were found to be the highest for Algae + 50 MgO and the lowest for Algae + 50 MgS, respectively (all p < 0.0001). These promising results imply that extracts from C. Reinhardtii may be able to mitigate the adverse consequences of rumen fermentation. To precisely ascertain the impact particular Rhodophyta on greenhouse gas emissions, additional investigation is needed.

An evaluation was conducted to determine whether beech tree leaves can be used as an alternative forage source for dairy cattle in TMR rations and their anti-methanogenic properties. The TMR rations were altered by substituting 0, 25, 50, 75, and 100% of gazelle form beech leaf for dry meadow grass. As a result, significant differences were found between experimental groups in terms of estimated parameters, total gas, dry matter, organic matter, NDF, ADF, protein digestion values, TUFA, acetic, propionic, and butyric acid values (P<0.05). As a result of substituting beech leaves for the entire dry meadow grass, in vitro TDMD, MPP, MPSE, TDD values improved and decreased propionic and butyric acid levels. Using beech leaves as a roughage source reduced in vitro methane production numerically. Therefore, it was concluded that tree leaves in the form of gazelle can be used as a source of roughage in dairy cattle TMR instead of the whole dry meadow grass, and further studies are needed to clarify this issue.

The dissociation constants of Schiff bases, (E)-1-[(2,4-dichlorophenylimino)methyl]naphthalen-2-ol, (E)-1-[(2-chloro-4-nitrophenylimino)methyl]naphthalen-2-ol, (E)-1-[(2,4-dimethoxyphenylimino)methyl]naphthalen-2-ol, and their stability constants with the copper(II) metal ion were determined potentiometrically. The experimental conditions were arranged to achieve coordination in aqueous-ethanol solutions [ethyl alcohol (30

In this context, we aimed to investigate the effects of varying levels of Fumaric Acid (Fu), Malic Acid (Ma), Formic Acid (Fo), and their combinations on in-vitro degradability parameters, organic matter digestibility (OMD), metabolizable energy (ME) and net energy lactation (NEL) of alfalfa (Medicago polymorphia), white clover (Trifolium repens) and hairy vetch (Vicia villosa). Obtained data were analyzed as a completely randomized 3×8 factorial design, with GLM using SAS 9.4. The effects of legume forages and their interacion with organic acid were significant on ME, NEL and OMD values (p<0.05, p<0.01). in such a way that fumaric acid was led to an increase NEL. All of the parameters, except ME and OMD, were affected by organic acids (p<0.01). To conclude, utilization of organic acids could increase NEL, reduce the fermentation of insoluble fraction (b) and potential extent of gas production (a+b) from ruminants and reduce rapidly soluble fraction (a) (malic acid treatment only).

The chemical composition, in vitro total gas and CH4 production and performance of cattle fed on factory black tea waste (Camellia sinensis) (BTW), alfalfa (Medicago Sativa), sainfoin (Onobrychis sativa) and white clover (Trifolium repens) was investigated. The gas production was quantified at the 24th hour of the incubation process. BTW was found to vary from roughages in chemical composition (p < 0.05). In addition, the roughages differed in terms of nutrient composition and gas production (p < 0.05). In legume roughages, acetic acid (AA), propionic acid (PA), butyric acid (BA), and total volatile fatty acids (TVFA) values ranged from 52.36–57.00 mmol/L, 13.46–17.20 mmol/L, 9.79–12.43 mmol/L, and 79.71–89.05 mmol/L, respectively. In comparison with black tea waste, legume roughages had higher values of AA, PA, BA, and TVFA. Black tea waste contained a higher acetic acid ratio than legume roughages when compared as a percentage. There was a similar ratio of propionic acid to the rate calculated for sainfoin (Onobrychis sativa) and clover (Trifolium repens), and a similar ratio of butyric acid to the ratio determined for alfalfa (Medicago Sativa). The current study shows that the 5.7–6.3% tannin content of black tea waste can be used in ruminant rations with high-quality roughages. Due to the fact that BTW reduces methane emissions from ruminants and eliminates energy waste from them, the environment can be improved. To obtain more reliable results, further animal feeding experiments on legume roughages and BTW are required.

Using nylon bag techniques, Cornell net carbohydrates and protein systems (CNCPS), and scanning electron microscopy, the authors examined the digestibility and structure of Vicia ervilia (ervil, bitter vetch) after steam flaking, roasting, and microwave processing. During the in situ technique, the samples were incubated at 0, 2, 4, 6, 8, 12, 16, 24, 36, and 48 h. For the description of the ruminal DM (dry matter) and CP (crude protein) degradation kinetics of treated and untreated Vicia ervilia, different models were selected as the best fit for the dry matter (DM) and crude protein (CP) degradation parameters of steam flaked samples. The results showed that both the steam flaking and microwave treatment samples contained high levels of non-protein nitrogen and buffer soluble protein, respectively. In comparison with steam flaking and microwave treatment, roasting decreased and increased the buffer soluble protein and neutral detergent insoluble protein, respectively. The control treatments showed the highest levels of neutral detergent soluble protein and the lowest levels of acid detergent soluble protein. Moreover, steam flaking and roasting decreased and increased the amount of acid detergent insoluble protein, respectively. When using dry heat (microwave and roasting), the acid detergent soluble and insoluble protein fractions were increased. As a result of this experiment, the nitrogen fractions were altered using heat processing. Hence, protein fermented feed and ruminal fermentation conditions can be expressed using these results.

This study was carried out to determine the effects of adding CuO and ZnO nanoparticles (at levels of 0, 10, and 20 mg of CuO and ZnO nanoparticles in mL rumen fluid) on in vitro gas and methane production of alfalfa (Medicago sativa) hay. Green-synthesized CuO and ZnO nanoparticles were characterized using scanning electron microscope (SEM), Fourier transform infrared (FTIR), energy dispersive X-Ray spectroscopy (EDX), and atomic force microscopy (AFM) microscopes. The use of CuO and ZnO nanoparticles had significant effects on ruminal protozoa colonization, in vitro gas production, and mitigation of methane emission (P < 0.05). The use of CuO nanoparticles led to a decrease in the protozoa population, thus indirectly decreasing the ruminal fermentation. The CuO nanoparticle is not recommended biologically, but ZnO increased protozoa population and gas production; therefore, this nanoparticle could only exert beneficial effects on rumen fermentation and is recommended.

Abstract Modifying the chemical composition of a diet can be a good strategy for reducing methane emission in the rumen. However, this strategy can have adverse effects on the ruminal microbial flora. The aim of our study was to reduce methane without disturbing ruminal function by stimulating the growth and propagation of methanotrophs. In this study, we randomly divided twenty multiparous Holstein dairy cows into 4 groups in a 2×2 factorial design with two forage levels (40% and 60%) and two nitrate supplementation levels (3.5% and zero). We examined the effect of experimental diets on cow performance, ruminal fermentation, blood metabolites and changes of ruminal microbial flora throughout the experimental period (45-day). Additionally, in vitro methane emission was evaluated. Animals fed diet with 60% forage had greater dry matter intake (DMI) and milk fat content, but lower lactose and milk urea content compared with those fed 40% forage diet. Moreover, nitrate supplementation had no significant effect on DMI and milk yield. Furthermore, the interactions showed that nitrate reduces DMI and milk fat independently of forage levels. Our findings showed that nitrate can increase ammonia concentration, pH, nitrite, and acetate while reducing the total volatile fatty acids concentration, propionate, and butyrate in the rumen. With increasing nitrate, methane emission was considerably decreased possibly due to the stimulated growth of Fibrobacteria, Proteobacteria, type II Methanotrophs, and Methanoperedense nitroreducens, especially with high forage level. Overall, nitrate supplementation could potentially increase methane oxidizing microorganisms without adversely affecting cattle performance.

Abstract Nitrate may reduce the ruminal methane emission by competing methanogenesis to achieve more hydrogen. For this purpose, twenty Holstein lactating cows were examined using a 2×2 factorial design in 4 groups for 60 days with two forage levels (40% and 60%) and supplemental nitrate 0% (F40 and F60) and 3.5% (F40N and F60N) of diet dry matter (DM). Then, the effect of nitrate and forage levels on cow performance, ruminal fermentation, methane emission, and metabolic hydrogen sink were evaluated. The nitrate supplementation did not significantly affect milk yield and ECM/DMI, while milk urea nitrogen was increased. Lowest quantity of milk vitamins (A and E) was observed in nitrate groups. The nitrate supplementation increased c9-C18:1, unsaturated fatty acids, and n-6/n-3 contents of the milk. Blood parameters were affected by nitrate supplementation. Blood met-Hb concentration was increased, while blood glucose was decreased in nitrate groups. High forage and nitrate fed animals (F60N) had higher ruminal acetate and lower propionate concentration, and higher acetate+butyrate to propionate ratio than other groups. Nitrite and NH3-N concentrations were higher in the rumen of nitrate fed animals. Nitrate supplementation inhibited gas volume and methane emission without affecting volatile fatty acids at 12 and 24 h of incubation. The H2 balance, H2 production and consumption, and recovery percentage were significantly lower in F60N group. In conclusion, nitrate supplementation can be employed as an alternative strategy for improving ruminal fermentation, milk quality and methane inhibition.

This study was carried out to determine the effects of addition of humate, probiotic, and their combination into diets on performance, egg quality, and yolk fatty acid composition of hens during the second laying period. Lohmann LSL white layers (n = 192), 46 weeks of age, were randomly divided into 4 groups and fed with basal diet (control, C), 0.3% humate (H), 0.3% probiotic (P), 0.15% humate + 0.15% probiotic (HP) for 18 weeks. Feed consumption and egg production were determined daily, egg weight was measured biweekly, and body weights were recorded at the beginning and the end of the experiment. Also, 12 egg samples from each group were randomly collected to determine the egg quality every 30 days. Laying performance, yolk color, and fatty acid composition were significantly (P < 0.05 and P < 0.01) affected by addition of humate, probiotic, and their combination into diets of layers. The HP group had higher cracked egg yield and feed conversion ratio values than control and H and P groups. Except for egg yolk color, the other egg quality parameters such as shape index, shell strength, shell thickness, albumen index, yolk index, and Haught unit were not affected by treatment (P < 0.05 and P < 0.01). The egg yolks of treatment groups had less stearic acid than those of control group. In conclusion, supplementation of humate and probiotic into the diets of laying hens increased monounsaturated fatty acids in yolk and improved feed conversion ratio and egg yolk color.

Current study was conducted to figure out the effects of some organic acids as either individually or in combinations at varying levels (Fumaric Acid (Fu), Malic Acid (Ma), Formic Acid (Fo), Fu + Ma, Fu + Fo, Fo + Ma and Fu + Ma + Fo) on volatile fatty acids (VFA) and methane mitigating of some legume forages such as alfalfa (Medicago polymorphia), clover (Trifolium repens) and vetch (Vicia villosa). Graded 100 ml syringes were used in gas production test. Gas volume was measured and sampled at 3, 6, 12, 24, 48, 72 and 96 h of incubation times, headspace produced methane was sampled at 24 h and the VFA profile was assessed at the end of the experiment. Obtained data were analyzed by exploiting SAS package program. Effects of legume forage × organic acid interactions and legume forages on the amounts of gas production determined at different incubation times and the amounts of methane production measured at 24 h of incubation were found significant (p < 0.05, p < 0.01). Simultaneously, increasing Fumaric acid, enhanced Propionic Acid percentage (P > 0.05). Reduction in Acetic Acid percentage was discovered for samples treated with Formic Acid (P < 0.05) but for Butyric Acid samples that treated with Malic Acid showed lower percentage (P < 0.05). As a consequence, the addition of fumaric acid to legume forages was more effective than the other organic acids as either individually or in combinations at varying levels since it was able to increase the amounts of total gas production determined at 24 h and at 96 h, decreased the amount of methane measured at 24 h of incubation. Hence, the fumaric acid could be employed in a nature-friendly and continual way to diminish methane emissions and avoid waste of energy from ruminants thereby improving environmental conditions.

It is essential to study the dynamics of rumen degradation of feeds before their potential use in formulating diets for ruminants. Various mathematical models have been developed to describe this degradation. The non-lagged exponential model (Model I), the lagged exponential model (Model II), the Gompertz model (Model III), and the generalized Mitscherlich model (Model IV) were examined using two alternative software (SAS and MATLAB) to determine their efficacy in accounting for variation in ruminal disappearance of dry matter (DM) and crude protein (CP) of lucerne hay from three cuttings. All models described DM degradability well (R2 >0.98). Only Models I and II converged when fitted to CP degradability data (R2 >0.98). It was concluded that any of these models could be used to describe the degradation of DM, whereas only Models I and II could be used to describe the degradation of CP from three cuttings of Lucerne hay. All the models that were fitted to the DM degradation data performed reasonably well, with only minor differences in goodness of fit. However, these models differed in values of the parameter estimates. Additionally, SAS failed to converge in the analyses of CP with Models III and IV, and MATLAB converged to nonsensical values with Model III. Model I might be recommended because it fitted the data well and required estimates of the fewest parameters Keywords: alfalfa hay, in situ digestion, model selection, nonlinear regression

This study was carried out to determine the effects of boron addition into the diets on serum parameters of hens. A total of 288 Lohman laying commercial hybrid chickens of 62 weeks were fed for 12 weeks with four different rations containing basal feed 0 (B0), 50 (B50), 75 (B75) and 150 (B150) mg / kg B. Each group was replicated in 18 cages, four hens per cage. During the study, 16 hours lighting program was applied, feed and water were given as ad-libitum. The effect of boron supplementation was not significant on the rates of diacylglycerol and hydrocarbon+cholesterol esters (P>0.05) but the rates of polarlipid, triacylglycerol (P<0.05), and serum total cholesterol (P<0.01) were found significant. Lipid peroxidation values of groups fed with diets including 75 and 150 mg/kg B were determined lower than others. Addition of ration B affected different molecular weight proteins at different levels. In conclusion, it has been determined that the addition of B at different levels into the diets of laying hens during late laying period significantly influenced the serum lipid peroxidation, serum lipid and serum protein profile, but further researches are needed to clarify the changes related to the effects of B addition into diets on mentioned parameters of laying hens.

Yumurtacı tavuk rasyonlarına Bor ilavesinin serum parametreleri üzerine etkisini tespit etmek amacıyla yürütülen çalışmada, 62 haftalık 288 adet Lohman yumurtacı ticari hibrit tavuklar bazal yem 0 (B0), 50 (B50), 75 (B75) ve 150 (B150) mg/kg B içeren dört farklı rasyonla 12 hafta boyunca yemlenmişlerdir. Araştırma 18 tekerrürlü olarak yürütülmüş ve her bir tekerrürde 4 adet tavuk bulundurulmuştur. Çalışma boyunca 16 saat aydınlatma programı uygulanmış, yem ve su ad-libitum olarak verilmiştir. Serum lipid bileşenlerinden diaçilgliserol ve hidrokarbon+kolesterol esteri düzeylerine muamelenin etkisi önemsiz olurken (P>0.05), polarlipid, triaçilgliserol (P<0.05) ve kolesterol (P<0.01) düzeylerine B’nin etkisi önemli bulunmuştur. Rasyonlarına 75 ve 150 mg/kg B ilave edilen grupların serum lipid peroksidasyonu değerleri diğer gruplardan daha düşük olmuştur. Rasyona B ilavesi farklı moleküler ağırlıktaki proteinleri farklı seviyelerde etkilemiştir. Sonuç olarak, yumurtacı tavukların yemine farklı miktarlarda B ilavesinin serum lipid peroksidasyonu ile serum lipid ve serum protein profilini önemli derecede etkilediği tespit edilmiştir. Fakat, söz konusu parametreler üzerine B’nin etkisiyle ilgili değişiklikleri netleştirmek için daha fazla araştırma yapılması gerektiği kanaatine varılmıştır.

This study was conducted to evaluate in vitro gas and methane production, gas production parameters (a + b, c), organic matter digestibility (OMD), metabolic energy (ME) and net energy lactation (NEL) of wheat straw treated with silage effluent. Groups were formed as wheat straw (control group, (W)), straw treated with urea + molasses (WUM) and silage effluent (WS), water, urea and molasses (WHOM), water (WH), 50% silage effluent +50% water + urea + molasses (WSHUM), and then except for control group, treatment groups were subjected to 45 days anaerobic fermentation.Crude protein and crude ash contents of the straw groups treated with silage effluent were increased (P<0.01), and cell wall elements such as ADP and NDF of the treatment groups were decreased (P<0.01). In addition, OMD, ME and NEL contents and in vitro gas production (IVIG) values of straw were increased by treatment with silage effluent (P<0.01). It was determined that the addition of urea and molasses to wheat straw did not affect the production of methane according to the control, and in vitro gas production parameters were improved (P<0.01). In conclusion, in order to improve feed value of wheat straw, it may be treated with silage effluent cauising environmental pollution and nutrient loss, and further works should be carried out to illuminate the subject.