Nanotechnology is a vast field applicable in various areas of study, including agriculture. Nanoparticles (NPs) can be used in plant disease control in many ways, including as fungicide delivery systems and to enhance cell-to-cell interactions in plants. Their ease of use can be manipulated not only for disease control in crop production but also for the identification of plant diseases. Information on the use of NPs for plant disease control and disease identification was collated. Mechanisms of action of NPs were outlined and discussed. Through these mechanisms, ZnO-NPs reduced Fusarium wilt symptoms in tomatoes by 28.57

Environmental pollution, encompassing water contamination, air degradation, and microplastic proliferation, poses significant threats to ecosystems and human health, necessitating advanced remediation strategies. Nanotechnology, leveraging the unique physicochemical properties of materials at the nanoscale, offers transformative solutions for addressing complex pollutants in industrial effluents, wastewater, drinking water, acid mine drainage, microplastics, and air. This review synthesizes peer-reviewed literature to trace nanotechnology’s evolution from its conceptual origins in the mid-twentieth century to current applications and future prospects. Fundamental mechanisms, including adsorption, photocatalysis, and chemical reduction, are elucidated, highlighting their efficacy in achieving near-complete contaminant removal with minimal waste. Key advancements include titanium dioxide-based photocatalysts for organic pollutant degradation, zero-valent iron nanoparticles for heavy metal reduction, and graphene-based membranes for filtration. Challenges such as nanomaterial toxicity, scalability, and regulatory gaps are critically examined, alongside innovative solutions like green synthesis and hybrid system integration. Case studies demonstrate practical applications, such as 99% antibiotic degradation and 95% microplastic removal. The review underscores nanotechnology’s potential to align with global sustainability goals, advocating for interdisciplinary efforts to ensure safe, scalable, and eco-friendly remediation technologies.

The prevalence of antimicrobial resistance and cancer is on the rise, and these ailments create difficulties in therapeutic management and patient compliance. Hence, this necessitates the discovery of novel, less toxic, bioactive compounds from natural sources. This study aimed to investigate the phytochemical composition of leaf extracts from Vachellia karroo, Vachellia kosiensis, Vachellia Farnesiana, Vachellia sieberiana, and Vachellia xanthophloea using Fourier Transform Infrared Spectroscopy (FTIR) and Gas Chromatography-Mass Spectrometry (GC-MS), as well as their cytotoxic activity and antimicrobial properties. Cytotoxicity was assessed in human breast adenocarcinoma (MCF-7) and colorectal carcinoma (HCT116) cell lines, as well as in normal human lung fibroblast cells (MRC5), to determine selectivity. Antimicrobial activity was evaluated against Staphylococcus aureus, Escherichia coli, and Candida albicans. The FTIR analysis indicated the presence of functional groups representing phenols, carboxylic groups, hydroxy groups, alcohols and benzene rings. GC-MS was performed on five species of Vachellia and confirmed 51 volatile compounds, including phytol, germanicol, and supraene. Among all the extracts, V. karroo and V. xanthophloea presented the most cytotoxic activity with IC₅₀ = 9.61 ± 1.00 and 9.82 ± 0.96 μg/mL against the MCF-7 cells and 3.51 ± 1.05 and 10.20 ± 0.96 μg/mL against the HCT116 cells. In addition, all the extracts show lower cytotoxicity to MRC-5 normal cells (IC₅₀ > 20 μg/mL), thus indicating good selectivity with camptothecin used as a positive control. V. karroo showed cytotoxic activity with IC₅₀ values of 9.61 ± 1.00 and 3.51 ± 1.05 μg/mL against MCF-7 and HCT116 cells, while camptothecin exhibited IC₅₀ values of 5.52 ± 0.70, 6.52 ± 0.76 and 4.60 ± 0.56 μg/mL against MRC-5, MCF-7 and HCT116 cells. The extracts showed IC₅₀ values of >20 μg/mL against MRC-5 cells, suggesting non-toxicity. As mentioned earlier, the extracts also showed a great range of antibacterial activity against S. aureus, E. coli and C. albicans. V. karroo showed minimum inhibitory concentrations (MICs) of 1.25, 2.50 and 5.00 mg/mL against S. aureus, E. coli and C. albicans, respectively and V. kosiensis with MIC values of 0.31, 1.25 and > 10.00, respectively. This study revealed the presence of several diverse and significant phytochemicals in the leaves. The bioactivities and low toxicity towards normal cells are indicative of the potential for cancer and associated bacterial co-infection treatment.

Plastic pollution poses severe threats to ecosystems, human health, and economies as plastics fragment into macro- and microplastics that accumulate across marine and terrestrial environments. Conventional monitoring is constrained by scale, cost, and resources, particularly in under-resourced regions, whereas citizen science provides an inclusive, community-driven alternative for data collection, analysis, and remediation to support evidence-based policy. This systematic review advances the field through three novel contributions: a refined participatory typology that explicitly prioritizes co-creative models for equitable engagement in the Global South; the first comprehensive synthesis of direct citizen involvement in plastic bioremediation, including community microbial isolation, household biodegradation trials, and real-world testing of biodegradable materials; and a new conceptual framework positioning citizen science as the central nexus linking upstream prevention, technological innovation, bioremediation, and global governance. Findings highlight large-scale geotagged datasets, behavioral change, and policy influence, while persistent challenges include data standardization, digital exclusion, and Global North bias. We therefore advocate institutional mainstreaming through dedicated policy offices, decolonial integration of indigenous knowledge, and hybrid citizen–lab validation pipelines, especially in underrepresented regions such as Africa, establishing citizen science as a transformative mechanism for participatory and equitable responses to escalating plastic pollution.

Synthetic plastics are among the most persistent anthropogenic pollutants due to their high molecular weight, hydrophobicity, and structural recalcitrance, driving global interest in biologically mediated degradation strategies. This narrative review critically examines current knowledge on microbial and enzymatic degradation of synthetic plastics, integrating insights from polymer chemistry, microbial ecology, enzymology, and environmental constraints. We synthesize evidence demonstrating that most reported microbial interactions with plastics represent biodeterioration and surface conditioning, rather than true depolymerization, assimilation, or mineralization. While plastisphere-associated microbial communities and extracellular enzymes can initiate oxidative and hydrolytic surface modifications, intrinsic polymer properties, environmental heterogeneity, and methodological limitations severely restrict progression toward complete biodegradation under realistic conditions. Among enzymatic systems, polyesterases, particularly PETase–MHETase pathways, represent a rare and well-validated case of true depolymerization, whereas polyolefin degradation remains fundamentally constrained. We further highlight how reliance on indirect proxies, such as weight loss and surface erosion, has contributed to overestimation of biodegradation potential, underscoring the need for rigorous validation. To advance the field, we advocate respirometric CO2 evolution assays and 13C-labeled polymers as gold-standard approaches for demonstrating microbial mineralization, alongside greater alignment with existing international standards. Finally, we discuss translational barriers, including scalability, biosafety, and regulatory challenges, and position cell-free enzymatic systems as a promising pathway bridging laboratory advances with environmentally and regulatorily acceptable applications.

Heavy metals are undeniably a threat to the environment. Nanocalcium-based amendments, including nano-hydroxyapatite (NHAP) and tricalcium phosphate variants, demonstrate effective immobilization of heavy metals such as Pb, Cd, Zn, Cu, and As in contaminated soils at the same time enhance soil health. We systematically reviewed articles to identify the various types of nanocalcium-based amendments and evaluate their effectiveness in immobilizing and remediating heavy metals in soil. Nanocalcium materials process remediation through various means which include sorption and precipitation, these is made possible by their nanoscale structure, high surface area, and chemical composition. Application methods include direct soil mixing, granular placement, and liquid-phase slurries. These are influenced by soil pH, texture, and organic matter content making them efficient. Nanocalcium amendments often alter soil chemistry by raising pH, increasing cation exchange capacity, and promoting the formation of stable mineral phases, which leads to the eventual reduction in metal mobility and bioavailability. Hybrid composites integrating nanocalcium, especially NHAP, with other materials like biochar improve contaminant retention and reduce metal translocation into plant tissues, achieving reductions in bioavailable metal fractions and compliance with food safety standards. Other synergistic combinations with iron oxide nanoparticles or organic amendments enhance immobilization efficiency and support microbial activity, contributing to improved plant growth and reduced oxidative stress. Ecotoxicological assessments mostly indicate low toxicity to non-target soil organisms, with microbial communities often showing recovery post-treatment. Despite the promising results, gaps remain in long-term field evaluations and molecular-level mechanistic insights, highlighting the need for extended monitoring to confirm durability, ecological safety, and sustained agronomic benefits across diverse environmental conditions.

Year-round variations of contaminants of emerging concern (CECs, also known as emerging contaminants) were examined in river water, dam water, and treated municipal wastewater in the South African setting. UPLC-MS/MS identified CECs belonging to different categories such as pesticides, licit and illicit recreational drugs, and particularly pharmaceuticals. Concentrations of up to 6 µg/L were identified but greatly varied spatially and temporally. Treated municipal wastewater was a harbinger for CECs (e.g., 6,055 ± 434 ng/L for efavirenz an HIV drug), while high CECs concentrations were also observed in river water (e.g., 3,228 ± 114 ng/L for acetaminophen). The high concentration for antiretroviral medication reflects the HIV/AIDS crisis in Sub-Saharan Africa and likely medicine misuse for illicit drug (whoonga/nyaope) manufacturing. Large intra-seasonal and intra-annual (seasonal) variations were observed (e.g., caffeine in dam water ranged from 73 ± 6 ng/L to 1,492 ± 30 ng/L), with overall high intra-seasonal and intra-annual variations (coefficient of variations up to 1.08 and 1.52, respectively) being observed. Individual risk quotients of up to 30 suggested high ecotoxicological risk potential. CECs pollution is apparent in South Africa, and likely across Sub-Saharan Africa and the Global South where similar problems persist, suggesting the need for effective wastewater treatment and policy intervention to curb CECs releases in freshwater.

Plastics have become an indispensable part of our daily lives and, despite their negative effects on the environment, they are unavoidable. A continual accumulation of plastic waste has led to plastic pollution and this environmental problem has increased pressure on scientists to develop alternatives for plastic biodegradation and bioremediation. This chapter will examine the methods of action of microorganisms and their enzymatic pathways in the biodegradation of plastic polymers, which will also highlight recent findings of multiple microbial species that may biodegrade plastic and the distinct enzymes they produce throughout the bioremediation process. Also highlighted are new methods in engineering, biotechnology and nanotechnology that may increase the pace of microbial plastic biodegradation by maximising microbial efficacies. This chapter will also discuss the limitations, obstacles and difficulties encountered in the implementation of plastic biodegradation, as well as the ecological effects of engineering solutions and the efficient promotion of natural plastic biodegradation. Finally, the significance of interdisciplinary research in promoting sustainable plastic biodegradation within waste management, addressing the constraints of plastic bioremediation and providing avenues for future research while enhancing the potential for large-scale industrial plastic biodegradation, is highlighted.

The escalating crisis of plastic pollution in aquatic ecosystems has created a novel ecological niche known as the plastisphere, where microbial communities colonize plastic surfaces, influencing biogeochemical cycles, pollutant degradation, and ecosystem health. Despite global plastisphere research, studies in subtropical, eutrophic African urban rivers remain scarce, limiting insights into substrate-specific microbial assembly and bioremediation potential in polluted freshwater systems. Plastic debris in the Jukskei River, an urban waterway in Johannesburg, South Africa, hosts distinct bacterial and fungal communities on polyethylene (PE) and polystyrene (PS) surfaces. Attenuated total reflectance Fourier transform infrared (ATR-FTIR) spectroscopy revealed oxidative weathering (carbonyl indices 0.08-0.28) consistent with environmental aging. Targeted amplicon sequencing (full-length 16S rRNA and ITS regions via PacBio HiFi) demonstrated substrate-specific community composition (PERMANOVA, pseudo-F{1,8} = 3.45, R2 = 0.40, p < 0.01), with PE supporting higher genus-level evenness and taxa such as Romboutsia, Cutibacterium, and Sphingomonas, while PS was characterized by greater representation of Lactococcus, Clostridium sensu stricto, and lactic acid bacteria. Low-abundance potential pathogens at the genus level (Escherichia-Shigella, Streptococcus) showed statistically significant correlations with eutrophication indicators (BOD₅, nitrate) and cadmium, although no causal mechanisms were established. Additionally, the amplicon-based approach used was unable to confirm both species-level resolution and virulence potential. PICRUSt2 and FUNGuild predictions indicated the presence of broadly distributed metabolic pathways and guilds, but these inferences do not constitute evidence of active plastic biodegradation or specialized ecological roles. This study provides the first amplicon-based characterization of the plastisphere in a polluted African urban river, revealing substrate-driven bacterial assembly patterns and highlighting the need for future functional validation to assess bioremediation potential and public health risks.

IntroductionThe occurrence and abundance of heavy metal resistance genes (HMRGs) in drinking water treatment plants (DWTPs) and the stages at which they occur are a global challenge due to the risk of consuming contaminated water.MethodsThe present study identified HMRGs associated with raw water sources, treatment stages (disinfection and filtration), final treated water, and produced sludge in three DWTPs across three provinces (Gauteng, Limpopo, and Mpumalanga) in South Africa, using a shotgun metagenomic approach.ResultsIn total, five classes of heavy metals (copper, arsenic, mercury, chromate, silver) and 50 resistance genes were identified across the three DWTPs. Most of the genes were obtained from the disinfection stages of the DWTPs.DiscussionThis genomic dataset provides valuable information on the impact of disinfection stages on the relative abundance of HMRGs in drinking water treatment processes. Additionally, the transfer of genes into the final treated water consumed by the populace is a significant human health concern.

Global plastic production surpassed 436 million metric tonnes in 2023, with polyolefins, polyethylene and polypropylene, and polyesters, polyethylene terephthalate and polybutylene adipate terephthalate dominating the persistent fraction. In extreme environments, these recalcitrant polymers accumulate rapidly: hadal-trench sediments contain microplastic abundances of 71.1 items per kilogram dry weight, while bottom waters reach 2.06-13.51 particles per litre. Abiotic degradation is severely limited by hydrostatic pressure, hypersalinity, low temperature, and anaerobiosis. Although bacterial and fungal pathways have received primary attention, archaea adapted to polyextreme conditions represent an underexplored resource. Landmark discoveries include PET46, a lid-containing feruloyl esterase from uncultured Candidatus Bathyarchaeota in Guaymas Basin deep-sea sediments that hydrolyses semi-crystalline polyethylene terephthalate powder at rates comparable to established bacterial PETases while outperforming them on oligomers. Subsequent metagenomic prospecting identified GuaPA, a distinct Bathyarchaeia-derived PETase capable of film depolymerisation. Deep-sea plastispheres, hypersaline basins, and extraterrestrial analog sites further reveal archaeal colonisation and metabolic versatility. This review synthesises metagenomic, enzymatic, and community-level evidence, critically evaluates archaeal advantages relative to bacteria and fungi, addresses persistent gaps, including limited polyolefin mineralisation and cultivation bias, and outlines priorities for enzyme engineering and consortia design. The work advances sustainable bioremediation strategies aligned with climate-action goals and circular-economy frameworks in extreme and space environments.

The environmental conditions in the stages of wastewater treatment plants (WWTPs) play a crucial role in the effectiveness of contaminant removal as well as influence the microbial communities that are pivotal in biological contaminant removal. Bioaugmentation, which involves the addition of a specific microorganism or microbial consortia capable of degrading contaminants in a media, and biostimulation, which involves the modification of the physicochemical treatment environment to create a conducive environment for the microorganisms to proliferate and decontaminate the waste effluents, are promising strategies in wastewater treatment and other biotreatment processes. Individual application of bioaugmentation or biostimulation is often not sufficient to produce the required contaminant removal, leading to the application of the two strategies concurrently. This chapter provides information on the beneficial inherent microbial communities and the role of the application of the bioaugmentation or biostimulation strategies in WWTPs. Information on the relevant biostimulation interventions that can enhance the proliferation and activities of the contaminant-removing microbial communities is discussed. Information on the application of bioaugmentation and biostimulation and the understanding of the gaps existing in the individual application or co-application of the strategies for a sustainable solution to wastewater treatment is provided.

Acid mine drainage (AMD) is a highly recalcitrant wastewater matrix that is typically generated from coal and metal mining activities and contains elevated levels of (heavy) metals and sulfates, along with rare earth elements (REEs) and radionuclides in some instances. This review seeks to elucidate the physicochemical characteristics of AMD and potential resource recovery avenues that can grossly underpin circularity and introduce the waste-to-resource paradigm. Specifically, opportunities for major metals (e.g., iron (Fe), aluminum (Al), and manganese (Mn)) and critical minerals, such as cobalt (Co), nickel (Ni), and notably, REEs recovery, along with other minor constituents, such as radionuclides, were explored. Other valorization avenues, such as sulfates transformation to sulfuric acid and recovery, and water reclamation were further explored. The techniques for resource recovery from AMD, such as precipitation, adsorption, solvent extraction, and ion exchange, were discussed, as well as possible industrial uses of the recovered materials (e.g., coagulants, adsorbents, pigments and catalysts). The beneficiation and valorization of AMD can minimize ecological footprint associated with this notorious mine water effluent, and, to a larger extent, reduce the extraction of virgin resource, such as REEs, while water reclamation can provide water security in water-scarce regions and countries. The recovered resources can provide an important revenue stream by offsetting the treatment costs and even making the process self-sustainable due to the high value of certain products. For example, the REEs global market in 2023 was USD$5.9 billion and is expected to reach USD$14.2 billion by 2033, with a compound annual growth rate (CAGR) of 12 %, thus denoting that recovering REEs from AMD could be profitable, while it also reduces mining requirements and associated environmental impacts. Finally, knowledge gaps in terms of recoverability, along with challenges, prospects, and avenues for further research into this growing field were also distilled.

Acid mine drainage (AMD) is an iron-rich acidic wastewater that poses grave environmental risks, but also presents opportunities for resource recovery. Here, ferric iron (Fe(III)) was facilely recovered from AMD and subsequently used for ferric chloride (FeCl3) production for water coagulation. To avoid the problem of high sulfate co-precipitation that is encountered with calcium (Ca)- and sodium (Na)-based agents, magnesium oxide (MgO) nanoparticles (derived from thermally activated cryptocrystalline magnesite) were used to selectively precipitate and recover Fe(III) from AMD. State-of-the-art instruments (i.e., HR-FIB-SEM-EDS) shed light on the characteristics and composition of the recovered material, confirming that Fe(III) was recovered, along with minor concentrations of aluminum (Al), Ca, Mg, and sulfate. This material was then reacted with hydrochloric acid (HCl) towards FeCl3 synthesis, which was then employed for water and wastewater coagulation-flocculation-settling treatment. Optimum conditions for South African river water treatment included 0.2 mL/L (v/v ratio), 100 rpm mixing speed, and 5 min contact time. Turbidity, Fe, and Al removals exceeded 99%, meeting the South African drinking water (SANS 241) standards. Most notably, the performance of the AMD-synthesized FeCl3 was on par with commercially available FeCl3, with no meaningful statistical differences being observed. Furthermore, and initial reagent-only cost analysis suggested costs less than half of those for commercially available FeCl3, thus, presenting a new sustainable waste-to-resource approach. Results also highlighted that AMD-synthesized FeCl3 can be safely employed by the water and wastewater industry to underpin sustainability and address price and availability (supply instability) concerns which surround commercial coagulants/flocculants. Furthermore, through AMD beneficiation, i.e., Fe(III) recovery, and partial acidity correction, water reclamation opportunities from AMD can be further pursued. Overall, resource recovery from waste and their reuse for treating other wastes can introduce sustainable paradigms and promote the United Nations (UN) sustainable development goals (SDGs).

Mining has contributed to South Africa’s development, but its legacy has left more than 6000 abandoned sites, with Brakpan in South Africa among the most affected areas. This study assessed heavy metals and naturally occurring radioactive materials (NORM) in the Brakpan mine wasteland in Gauteng Province, South Africa. Soil and water samples from the area were analysed using inductively coupled plasma mass spectrometry (ICP-MS) for heavy metals and high-purity germanium gamma-ray spectrometry (HPGe) was used for NORM analysis. The results showed elevated concentrations of several contaminants. In soils, chromium (103.98 mg/kg) and arsenic (47.75 mg/kg) were notably enriched, while uranium exhibited the highest mean concentration (7.14 mg/kg), exceeding the South African soil quality guidelines for contaminated land. Water samples showed high concentration of uranium (mean 1.64 mg/L) and nickel (12.78 mg/L) concentrations, exceeding guideline values for agricultural use and aquatic ecosystem protection value of 0.03 mg/L and 0.04 mg/L, respectively. Suggesting potential risks to downstream water users and ecological receptors. Radiological analysis revealed activity concentrations of 238U ranging from 12.78 to 409.73 Bq/kg (mean: 160 Bq/kg), with mean activity concentrations of 232Th and 40 K of 19.65 Bq/kg and 376 Bq/kg, respectively. The absorbed dose rate averaged 108.19 nGy/h exceeding the UNSCEAR global average background level (59 nGy/h). Localised hotspots exhibited radium equivalent activity of up to 492.49 Bq/kg and an external hazard index of 1.33, indicating elevated radiological risk near residential settlements. Overall, the findings highlight combined geochemical and radiological hazards, underscoring the need for integrated remediation and management strategies to protect affected communities.

Anaerobic digesters host a variety of microorganisms, and they work together to produce biogas. While bacterial and archaeal communities have been well explored using molecular techniques, fungal community structures remain relatively understudied. The present study aims to investigate the dynamics and potential ecological functions of the predominant fungi in bacteria-bioaugmented anaerobic digesters. Eight different anaerobic digesters that contained chopped water hyacinth and cow dung as feedstock at 2% total solids were respectively inoculated with eight different bacterial strains and digested anaerobically in controlled conditions. The diversity and dynamics of the fungal community of the digesters before and after digestion were monitored using high-throughput sequencing of the fungal ITS2 sub-region of the ribosomal gene. The functional potential of the fungal community was predicted using ecological guild analysis. The dominant fungal phyla were (with relative abundance ≥1%) Ascomycota and Neocallimastigomycota. Ascomycota exhibited over 90% dominance in all treatments after anaerobic digestion (AD). Aspergillus sp. was consistently dominant across treatments during AD, while prominent anaerobic fungal genera Anaeromyces, Cyllamyces, and Caeomyces decreased. Ecological guild analysis at genus level showed that the majority of the identified fungi were saprophytes, and diversity indices indicated decreased richness and diversity after AD, suggesting a negative impact of AD on fungal communities in the anaerobic digesters. The multivariate structure of the fungal communities showed clustering of treatments with similar fungal taxa. The findings from this study provide insights into the fungal ecological guild of different bacteria-bioaugmented anaerobic digesters, highlighting their potentials in bacteria-augmented systems. Identification of an anaerobic fungal group within the phylum Ascomycota, beyond the well-known fungal phylum Neocallimastigomycota, offers a new perspective in optimizing the AD processes in specialized ecosystems.

Acid mine drainage (AMD) is an acidic effluent enriched with high metal content, posing noteworthy environmental risks. However, AMD treatment can be coupled with resource recovery, promoting circular economy strategies. This study demonstrates the recovery of Fe(III) from AMD using MgO nanoparticles, followed by FeCl_3 synthesis for river water treatment. The optimized conditions (0.2 mL/L FeCl_3, 100 rpm, 5 min contact time) achieved the removal efficacies in the following order: turbidity (99.6%) > Al (99.5%) > Fe (99.4%) > Cr (99.2%) > Ni (98.2%) > Mn (91.5%) > Cu (90.7%) > As (80.5%) > color (46.4%). This study highlights the feasibility of producing FeCl3 from AMD and its effectiveness for drinking water treatment, offering an innovative approach to AMD valorization.

We present a dataset of 99 prokaryotic metagenome-assembled genomes (MAGs) derived from 180-day culture-enrichment microcosms of seawater, landfill soil, and cow dung, with polyethylene terephthalate (PET) as the sole carbon source. The recovered MAGs met the medium-to-high quality standards of the Minimum Information for Metagenome-Assembled Genomes (MIMAG) criteria with completeness ranging from 76.5% to 100% and low contamination levels (<10%). The majority of the MAGs were obtained from seawater (52), followed by cow dung (28), and landfill soil (19). Additionally, the dataset includes detailed DRAM (Distilled and Refined Annotation of Metabolism) functional profiles of the MAGs, which highlight the potential role of these microorganisms in the biodegradation of PET polymers. This genomic data provides valuable reference information on bacteria and archaea with the potential capacity to biodegrade plastic, contributing to our understanding of microbial plastic biodegradation.

Mainlining is a high-stress training (HST) technique utilized in Cannabis sativa cultivation to restructure plant architecture, enhance canopy uniformity, and increase inflorescence yield. Despite its widespread application, scientific literature detailing the possible molecular, physiological, and agronomic mechanisms underlying this method remains limited. This review consolidates current knowledge on mainlining, focusing on its origins and its interaction with apical dominance, shoot apical meristem (SAM) regulation, and vascular differentiation. The technique involves strategic decapitation to disrupt apical dominance, initiating hormonal and metabolic shifts-particularly in auxin and sugar signalling-that stimulate axillary bud outgrowth and promote symmetrical cola development. Mainlining integrates both low- and high-stress training methods, including topping, lollipopping, and tie-downs, to optimize light distribution, canopy structure, and resource allocation. Further emphasis is placed on the role of vascular remodeling and secondary cell wall development in plant recovery and structural reinforcement following stress. The review also identifies critical research gaps, such as the absence of standardized protocols across Cannabis subspecies, and outlines future directions involving omics technologies, AI-assisted cultivation, and precision breeding. This synthesis provides a foundational reference for aligning empirical cultivation practices with plant developmental biology, contributing to the advancement of evidence-based Cannabis horticulture.