The yield of flowering crops depends on multiple factors, with pollination and the availability of nutrients being particularly crucial. However, fewer studies have explored the combined effects of nutrients and insect-mediated pollination on onions (Allium cepa L.). Here, we studied how different levels of insect pollination (0%, 25%, 50%, and 100%) and nitrophos fertilizer application (188, 375, and 750 kg/hectare) affect onion seed yield. We found that pollination benefits to yield were maximum at intermediate levels of nitrophos availability. A higher pollinator abundance was recorded at a high nitrophos level, followed by intermediate and low levels. Syrphid flies and honey bees were the most abundant insect pollinators. The abundance of honey bees was higher at a low nitrophos level, while syrphid flies were more abundant at a higher nitrophos level. Moreover, the umbel weight and seed number were higher at the intermediate fertilizer level. Also, single visits by insect pollinators were observed, and the highest umbel weight was found at the intermediate fertilizer level with a single visit from A. florea. This finding provides evidence that resource and pollination availability have interactive, nonlinear effects on seed production. Our results also support ecological intensification as a reliable strategy for sustainable agro-ecosystem management.

IntroductionInsects are receiving increasing attention due to their potential to enhance farming efficiency and sustainability, mitigate vast quantities of bio-waste, and improve animal performance. It is hypothesized that replacing soybean meal with Acheta domesticus will improve broiler productive performance, health, and meat quality. Therefore, the objective of this study was to assess the effect of the gradual replacement of soybean meal (4%, 8%, and 12%) with house cricket (A. domesticus) and black soldier fly (Hermetia illucens) on productive performances, hematology, intestinal morphology, and meat quality attributes of male broiler (Ross 308). MethodsA total of 350 1-day-old chicks (39.23 ± 0.19 g) were divided into seven groups (five pens per group and 10 chicks per pen) following a completely randomized design. The seven groups included 4%, 8%, and 12% SBM replacements with A. domesticus and H. illucens. Soybean meal was the basal diet considered the control. ResultsThe broilers fed 12% A. domesticus, or 12% H. illucens had significantly higher ((p 0.05) live weight, average daily weight gain, and improved feed conversion ratio than the broilers fed basal (SBM) diet throughout starter, grower, and finisher phases. Hematology (complete blood count and serum biochemistry traits) and intestinal morphology (villus height, villus width, crypt depth, and villus height-to-crypt depth ratio) of the broilers improved when fed on 12% A. domesticus and 12% H. illucens meals as compared to the control group (p < 0.05). Feeding 12% A. domesticus and 12% H. illucens also had a significant positive impact on the meat quality traits of broilers, such as maximum redness (a*) and yellowness (b*) with minimal cooking loss and lightness (L*) (p < 0.05) than the broilers fed the control diet. DiscussionUsing insect meal as an alternative to traditional feed sources could contribute significantly to the sustainable expansion of the poultry industry.

Climate change effects, including temperature extremes and water stress, cause abiotic stress in plants. These changes directly affect flowering and the flower reward system for pollinators, influencing plant–pollinator interactions and ultimately seed production in flowering plants. Here, we tested the effects of water deprivation on the behavior of various pollinator species, plant–pollinator interactions, and the seed yield of sunflower, Helianthus annuus L. (Asteraceae). Sunflower was sown during four different months (January–April) and subjected to two different water availability levels (well-watered and water-deprived). Pollinator abundance was recorded five times a day (8:00 am, 10:00 am, 12:00 pm, 2:00 pm, and 4:00 pm) from flower heads and the florets. In addition, foraging behavior was also recorded. We found that lowest abundance, visit duration, and visitation rate occurred in April-sown sunflower. The European honey bee Apis mellifera L. (Hymenoptera: Apidae) was the most abundant visitor to sunflower, the hover fly Eristalinus aeneus (Diptera: Syrphidae) exhibited the longest visit duration, while Xylocopa sp. (Hymenoptera: Apidae) exhibited the highest visitation rate. The visitation rate of bees was significantly affected by water stress, with more bee visits occurring under well-watered conditions. Additionally, plant parameters, including flower head diameter, head weight, seed number, and seed weight, were significantly lower in the water-deprived treatments in April-sown sunflower. Open flowers without the pollination exclusion cages showed a higher yield, indicating the pollination dependence of sunflower. In conclusion, the plant modifications induced by sowing months and water-deprived conditions may alter pollinator behavior and may ultimately affect sunflower yield.

Insects are becoming increasingly popular as a sustainable and nutritious alternative protein source in poultry feeds, due to their high protein content, low environmental impact, and efficient feed conversion rates. Using insect-based feeds can reduce the need for traditional protein sources like soybean meal (SBM), which often contribute to environmental issues such as deforestation and high water consumption. The current experiments were devised to assess the impacts of the partial replacement of SBM with the American cockroach Periplaneta americana and black soldier fly Hermetia illucens on the performances, hematology, gut morphometry, and meat quality of male broilers (Ross 308). A total of 350, 1-day-old chicks weighing 40.05 ± 0.27 g were divided into 7 dietary treatments (5 pens/treatment and 10 birds/pen) at random, i.e., a 4, 8, or 12% SMB replacement with P. americana and H. illucens. Soybean meal was used as a basal diet and taken as a control. The results indicated that broilers fed on 12% P. americana or H. illucens showed significant improvements (p < 0.05) in feed conversion ratio, live weight, and daily weight gain. Hematological traits significantly improved (p < 0.05). A gut histology showed increased villus height, villus width, crypt depth, and villus height/crypt depth ratios, indicating improved nutrient absorption. Broiler meat fed on 12% P. americana meal had significantly higher redness and yellowness (p < 0.05). Substituting soybean meal with up to 12% P. americana or H. illucens meal in poultry feed can enhance the broilers’ growth performance, hematology, gut morphometry, and meat quality. Hence, these findings imply that P. americana or H. illucens meal are viable and constructive alternative protein sources in poultry nutrition, offering a sustainable approach to meet the increasing demand for animal protein across the world.

An experiment was conducted to assess the pollinator community of onion (Allium cepa L.) as well to find the pollinators contributing to a higher onion seed production. Fifteen insect pollinator species belonging to two orders and two families were found to be visiting onion flowers. The dwarf honeybee, Apis florea F. (Hymenoptera: Apidae) was most frequent pollinator among bees. The maximum visitation rate was recorded in the case of Eristalinus aeneus S. (Diptera: Syrphidae), while the maximum stay time was recorded for A. florea. For observing the pollination effectiveness, we used pollinator exclusive approach, and four pollination trials were maintained i.e., 100%, 50%, 25% and 0% pollination. Pollinator effectiveness was accessed in terms of yield parameters such as umbel weight, number of seed and seed weight. Compared to 0% pollination, plants with 100% and 50% pollination levels showed 44- and 19-times higher seed production in onion, respectively. Six major pollinators were tested for their pollination efficiency. The single visit efficiency in terms of the number of seeds showed that plants with A. florea pollination showed higher seed yield. There was an increase in the number of seeds and seed weight per umbel, proving that A. florea is an effective pollinator in onion production. Moreover, syrphid flies also contributed to the onion seed production, though they were less efficient pollinators.

Sunflower (Helianthus annuus L.) is an important oil seed crop with a considerable acreage of cultivated hybrids in Pakistan. Sunflower crops depend on insect pollination for seed setting, as it attracts diverse pollinator fauna, mainly due to pollen and nectar availability. This study was conducted in the agricultural landscape of Multan, Pakistan, to evaluate the role of native and social bees in sunflower seed production. The abundance and diversity of pollinators were assessed. Effectiveness was tested regarding foraging behavior, including visitation rate, stay time, and seed set efficacy for single and multiple visits (5, 10, 15). Additionally, various reproductive success parameters were recorded: flower head (pseudanthium) diameter, flower head weight, seed weight/flower head, and number of seed/flower head. The results showed that the relative abundance of honey bees was the highest (77%) in both years, followed by solitary bees (17%), while syrphid flies were the least abundant (6%) on sunflower. Among honey bees, Apis mellifera and A. dorsata were the most abundant in both years, followed by the solitary bee Xylocopa sp. Furthermore, in single and multiple seed set efficacy (5 and 10 visits), the solitary bee Xylocopa sp. produced the maximum seeds, followed by A. mellifera. Higher seed production could be achieved with a focused conservation plan of solitary and managed bees on sunflower.

Cucurbits comprise a vast group of vegetables grown worldwide, including Pakistan. The sponge gourd (Luffa aegyptiaca) is a summer vegetable in Asia. Because of its monoecious nature, sponge gourd necessitates more pollination, and fruit production occurs only in the presence of insect pollinators. This study compared the foraging behavior and pollination effectiveness of the most abundant sponge gourd floral visitors, including five solitary bees and a giant honeybee, Apis dorsata. The foraging behavior was assessed regarding visitation rate, visitation frequency, and time spent per flower, while pollination effectiveness was assessed regarding pollen deposition and fruit set in a single visit. The bees constituted 91% of total pollinator abundance, followed by the flies (8%). Apis dorsata was the most abundant visitor, followed by Xylocopa sp., Lassioglossum sp., and Amegilla sp. Solitary bees, including Amegilla sp. and Nomia sp., demonstrated greater single-visit efficiency in pollen deposition and fruit set than A. dorsata and syrphid fly. Conservation of Amegilla sp. and Nomia sp. can enhance fruit production for sponge gourd and other vegetables cultivated in Punjab, Pakistan, by providing floral resources and nesting places.

Solitary bees are in constant decline due to climate change, pesticide toxicity, and habitat loss. Provision of nesting sites is an important conservation strategy. Various factors affect bee nesting, including parasitism, entrance orientation, nesting substrate type, and diameter. This study explored the impact of nesting substrate, cavity diameter, and entrance orientation on solitary bee nesting preferences. Additionally, it investigated the influence of landscape type and seasonality on bee nesting efficiency which is the ability of a bee to successfully establish nest. Trap nests were placed at eight locations, representing five landscapes (forest, desert, agriculture, peri-urban, and urban). These trap nests had five different nesting substrates (bamboo reeds, wooden blocks, wooden logs, mud blocks, and paper tubes). At each location, four traps were set in all directions. The results showed maximum cavity occupation in south-facing nests. Peri-urban landscapes were the most favored for nesting, followed by forests. Solitary bees primarily preferred bamboo reeds for nesting, with peak occupation from April to June. Bees favored cavities with 6- and 8-mm entrance diameters, while wasps occupied smaller diameters (< 5 mm). Overall, bee species occupied fewer nests compared to parasitic wasps. Future research should explore brood chamber numbers and species-specific nesting preferences for bees, along with the impact of cavity microclimate on bee growth.

Termite monitoring is an important part of designing the management strategy. In the current study, termite activity was observed at four sites in Multan (three structures and one agriculture area). For this purpose, monitoring traps consisted of plastic bin and wood pieces were buried in soil. The termite activity was observed on weekly basis for two months during March and April 2022. The results indicated that there were five species (Odontotermes spp., Microcerotermes spp., Amitermes spp., Microtermes spp. and Coptotermes spp.) infesting the buildings and agriculture area. The lowest termite contacts in traps were observed on the 1st week which were increased with the passage of time (maximum contacts recorded on 4th week of April). Similarly, the numbers of termites were also less at the 1st inspection at all sites (24-2059 numbers per station) and maximum numbers of termites per station were recorded on 4th week of April. The results will be helpful to manage termite infestation.

Insect pollination is an important ecosystem service for the reproductive success of different plant species. The mountain ebony, Bauhinia variegata L. (Fabaceae) is a native tree of Pakistan, and its flowering buds are used as a vegetable. The current study aims to determine the diversity and efficiency of native insect pollinators in the seed set of B. variegata. The foraging behavior of the pollinators was assessed in terms of their stay time and visitation rate. Furthermore, most abundant insect pollinators were also tested for their pollination efficiency in terms of single-visit pollen deposition and single-visit seed set. Moreover, different pollination treatments (i.e., open, hand cross, hand self, and natural self-pollination) were also compared. The insect pollinator fauna was composed of four hymenopteran species, four dipteran species, and three lepidopteran species. The managed honey bee, Apis mellifera L. (Hymenoptera: Apidae) was the most abundant insect pollinator, followed by the wild honey bee, A. dorsata and a hover fly species Ischiodon scutellaris (F.) (Diptera: Syrphidae). Based on the efficiency of pollen deposition and single visit seed set, A. dorsata and A. mellifera were the most efficient insect pollinators followed by I. scutellaris. Open pollination resulted in better reproductive success parameters (pod length, pod weight, number of seeds per pod, and seed weight per pod) as compared to other pollination treatments. The study concluded that conserving the most efficient insect pollinators (through providing year-round foraging and nesting resources) can help in improving the reproductive success of B. variegata and other cross-pollinated crops in the same region.

Trifolium alexandrinum L. is a multi-cut, winter annual fodder crop in the South Punjab region of Pakistan.Being cross pollinated crop, better seed production of T. alexandrinum depends upon insect pollinators.Current study was planned to find effective native insect pollinators which play a crucial role in enhancing seed production of T. alexandrinum.The goals were achieved by recording the diversity of insect pollinators, abundance, foraging activity and most importantly pollination efficiency in a single visit in terms of reproductive success parameters (head size, florets per head, seed count/head, seed mass/head and seed mass of 1000 seeds).The pollinator's community was composed of 06 Hymenoptera, 03 Diptera and 02 Lepidoptera species.It was found that the total abundance of a solitary bee Pesudapis oxybeloides was higher followed by a honey bee, Apis mellifera and a syrphid fly, Eristalinus aeneus.Moreover, solitary bee P. oxybeloides was detected as the most efficient pollinator based on rate of visitation and pollinator efficiency in a single visit, followed by A. mellifera and A. dorsata.The seed set in open pollination (free insect visits) was 58 and 70% higher and seed weight of 1000 seeds respectively as compared to self-pollination (no insect visits).Hence, conserving these most efficient native pollinators can lead to higher seed yield of T. alexandrinum and other seed crops in South Punjab, Pakistan.

Fall armyworm (Spodoptera frugiperda) is an invasive pest in South Asia. The current paper documents farmers' perceptions of fall armyworm in India, Pakistan, Sri Lanka, and Nepal and explores the current management practices adopted by farmers. A structured survey was conducted with 526 farmers regarding current cropping practices, identification of fall armyworm and its damage, management, capacity-building activities, and support from government and non-government extension services. The results suggested that most of the farmers reported very high to moderate damage from fall armyworm, and that the damage and spread increased over time. Although farmers used a range of management practices to control fall armyworm, chemical pesticides were still the dominant tool. Farmers learnt about the pest and its identification from their fellow farmers and individual experiences, while services from government and non-government offices were limited. Therefore, there is a need for an innovative extension approach, including the promotion of digital technologies. Similarly, the evaluation and promotion of new technologies as part of integrated pest management strategies (IPM) must be deployed to manage fall armyworm.

Bees have been observed to be the most effective pollinators in increasing the yield of fruits and seeds in various vegetable crops. To assess the pollination efficiency of indigenous bee species for the successful pollination of mungra crops (Raphanus sativus), an experiment was carried out at the research farm of Muhammad Nawaz Shareef University of Agriculture in Multan, Pakistan. The effectiveness of the most prevalent pollinators was measured using parameters such as visitation rate, duration of stay per flower, percentage of stigma contact, as well as the percentage of pod set from a single visit and the number of seeds per pod. The results indicated that Xylocopa sp. exhibited a notably higher visitation rate and stigma contact percentage, surpassing A. dorsata and A. mellifera. When considering the effectiveness of a single pollinator visit in terms of pod set percentage and the number of seeds per pod, Xylocopa sp. emerged as the most proficient pollinator, followed by A. dorsata and A. mellifera. Additionally, open-pollinated flowers demonstrated significantly higher pod set percentages and a greater number of seeds per pod compared to self-pollinated flowers. Conserving these efficient native bee species could potentially lead to increased vegetable crop production and greater returns for farmers in other cross pollinated crops in the Punjab Pakistan.

Abstract Transgenic cotton has brought about a significant transformation in the management of bollworms. Nevertheless, a considerable challenge has emerged in the form of Pectinophora gossypiella for transgenic cotton. In this research endeavor, we conducted the detection and quantification of Cry1Ac and Cry2Ab protein in field and pot samples of various transgenic cotton cultivars encompassing single, double, and triple gene varieties, employing Bt strips and ELISA methods. The extent of Bt protein production in both field and pot leaf samples across all examined cultivars was assessed at three distinct time points, namely 40, 80, and 120 days after sowing, coinciding with different growth phases (i.e., leaves, squares, bolls, and seeds). The outcomes revealed that heightened levels of Cry1Ac protein were present across all cultivars, whereas elevated levels of Cry2A protein were exclusively observed in the C6 (MNH-1045) cultivar. Bt proteins, namely Cry1Ac and Cry2Ab, exhibited variable concentrations depending on the specific cultivar, growth phase of the crop, and section of the plant. The findings underscored discernible differences in the concentrations of Cry1Ac and Cry2A proteins among all cultivars, while these concentrations also varied across different crop growth periods (i.e., 40, 80, and 120 days) and growth stages (i.e., leaf, square, bolls, and seed). It was discerned that the expression of toxins is contingent upon the developmental stage of the crop and the duration of growth. All of the transgenic cultivars displayed susceptibility to P. gossypiella. However, the triple-gene cultivar exhibited superior resistance. The incidence of P. gossypiella infestations increased in tandem with crop growth. The findings from this investigation are anticipated to provide valuable insights for entomologists and plant breeders, aiding them in devising suitable strategies, such as refuge maintenance or hybrid development, to safeguard transgenic cotton from pink bollworm infestations, thereby contributing to the sustainability of cotton production on a global scale.

Ecofriendly and cost-effective management of chickpeas is very important for improving food security. Barrier property of different packaging materials viz., polypropylene (white), polypropylene (green), polyethylene (gauge1), polyethylene (gauge 2), polymer, cotton, and china lamination was evaluated against the pulse beetle Callosobruchus chinensis (Coleoptera: Bruchidae). Results revealed that when chickpea was placed in the package after cleaning then no penetration and fecundity of C. chinensis were recorded in the closed package. A significant difference was observed among all the tested packages materials (closed and open) and storage periods in terms of the fecundity of C. chinensis. On the closed package, higher fecundity was observed in PE1 and PE2 packages while in the open package highest infestation was recorded in the CL package. However, fecundity increased with storage period in both open and closed packages.

Among bees, 85 % are solitary species, most of them are ground-nester and some are cavity-nesting and construct their nests in pre-existing cavities. This work was conducted to evaluate the substrate preference and nest architecture (acceptance, occupation percentage, seasonality and parasitism) of cavity-nesting bees in different substrates. Trap nests offered comprised five different materials (drilled cavities in wood, bamboo, cardboard tubes, plastic soda straws, and mud blocks). These were installed in four districts for two years. The nesting cavities of five different diameters (6, 8, 10, 12 and 14 mm) were provided in each nesting material with an average length of 180 ?? 9.92 mm. In all the materials, 5400 nesting cavities were offered, out of which 628 were colonized by bees from two families (Megachilidae and Apidae) and six species (Megachile cephalotes, M. lanata, M. bicolor, Xylocopa basalis, X. fenestrata and Ceratina smaragdula), including one parasitic bee (Euaspis carbonaria). The bee species differed significantly in occupying five nesting materials. The most preferred diameters were 8 mm and 10 mm, with 52.20% and 29.45% of colonization, respectively. Nesting was done throughout the year except in winter. This study will serve as a baseline for future studies and conservation programs of cavitynesting bees in Pakistan.

Measuring the pollination potential of different native bees is helpful in identifying the most efficient species for their conservation and proper utilization. The current study was carried out at the Research Farm of The Islamia University of Bahawalpur to compare the pollination efficiency of four native bee species: Apis dorsata, Megachile bicolor, M. cephalotes and Megachile (Callomegachile) sp. Apis dorsata was the most abundant floral visitor of Grewia asiatica comprising 36.46% of floral visitors following by M. cephalotes and Megachile sp. The peak abundance of A. dorsata and M. bicolor was recorded at 12:00 and 08:00, respectively whereas for M. cephalotes and Megachile sp. at 16:00. Visitation frequency, stay time, body and proboscis length were significantly higher in A. dorsata whereas visitation rate, pollen load and pollen deposition were significantly higher in M. bicolor. The maximum fruit weight was recorded when M. bicolor and Megachile sp. had been the pollinators. The post-harvest fruit weight loss was lower in M. bicolor pollinated fruit-with more gradual wrinkling-than in fruit that had resulted from pollination by A. dorsata, M. cephalotes and Megachile sp. Our results suggest that M. bicolor was better pollinator of G. asiatica in terms of its reproductive success and post-harvest qualities. Further studies should focus on conservation of M. bicolor in the region.

Improvement in physical and biochemical properties of fruits through cross-pollination is a highly variable phenomenon. It mainly depends on the species of the pollinator and the nature of the crop being pollinated. It is therefore imperative to quantify the relative pollination effectiveness of an insect species for a certain crop species. In the present study, pollination effectiveness of two native bees (i.e., Apis dorsata and A. florea) and two syrphid flies (i.e., Eristalinus aeneus and Eupeodes corollae) were evaluated in terms of physical properties of strawberry fruits at Multan, Pakistan. The physical parameters of resultant fruits included length, pole, equator, fruit set ratio, number of days to reach market maturity, and shelf life. The biochemical properties of fruits resulted from open-pollinated plants (free insect visits) and caged plants (no insect visits) were also compared. The biochemical parameters included TSS (total soluble solids), TA (titratable acidity), vitamin C, and pH. Apis dorsata was the most abundant pollinator, followed by E. aeneus and E. corollae. Based on single-visit effectiveness, A. dorsata proved to be the most effective pollinator, in terms of physical properties, of strawberry fruit. Eristalinus aeneus outcrossed A. florea in terms of fruit set (%). The open-pollinated plants showed better physical and biochemical properties (26% higher TSS, 34% higher TA, but 25% lower pH value) in terms of fruits than the caged plants. Conservation of A. dorsata and E. aeneus can enhance physical and biochemical properties of strawberry fruits in the region.

To appraise the effect of drought stress on the foraging behavior (visitation frequency and visitation rate) of insect pollinators and its ultimate impact on reproductive success of canola (Brassica napus L.), an experiment was carried out at the Research Farm of MNSUniversity of Agriculture, Multan, Pakistan. Previously, only a few studies have evaluated drought stress as a predictor of plant-pollinator interactions. Normal irrigated and drought stress plots of canola were separated by a distance of fifteen meters. Normal irrigated plots received recommended number of irrigations (three times) i.e., 1st irrigation at 30 days after germination (DAG), 2nd at flowering, and 3rd at pod setting. However, irrigation was applied only once to drought-stressed plots i.e., 1st irrigation at 30 DAG. Twelve insect species in two orders and five families visited the canola flowers. These floral visitor species were grouped into three categories, i.e., Apis bees (honey bees), non-Apis bees, and flies. The abundance of Apis and non-Apis bees was significantly higher in irrigated plots than in drought plots, while the abundance of flies did not differ significantly in both plots. Stay time of all the floral visitors was significantly higher in drought plots, while the visitation rate was significantly higher in irrigated plots. The interaction between pollination modes (open pollination and self-pollination) and water regimes (normal irrigation and drought stress) was significant for all the reproductive success parameters of canola (silique length and weight, number of seeds per silique, seed weight per silique, number of siliques per plant and fatty acid contents (%) of canola seeds) under normal irrigation regime for free insect visits treatment. Moreover, a variation of 83% to 207% was observed for these parameters between irrigated and drought plots receiving insect pollination (free insect visits) due to higher pollinator abundance and visitation rate in the former ones. However, all the reproductive success parameters did not vary between irrigated and drought plots with no insect pollination (no insect visits, caged treatment). In conclusion, drought stress negatively affected insect pollinators’ foraging behavior, leading to low reproductive success in canola. In the climate change scenario and limited water availability, future studies should consider drought stress for other cross-pollinated crops under varying environments and pollinator fauna.