OBJECTIVE:To evaluate the clinical effectiveness of eucalyptus oil in the symptomatic management of geriatric rhinitis in elderly patients. METHODS:A retrospective analysis of 56 patients aged ≥60 years with geriatric rhinitis was conducted. Patients received topical intranasal eucalyptus oil therapy for 2 weeks. Clinical outcomes included nasal dryness, crusting, frequency of epistaxis, nasal obstruction, postnasal drip, and olfactory function. Symptom severity was assessed using a visual analog scale (VAS), and pre- and post-treatment scores were compared. RESULTS:Significant improvements were observed in nasal dryness (mean VAS pretreatment: 7.8, mean VAS post-treatment: 3.2, P<0.001), crusting (mean VAS pretreatment: 6.9, mean VAS post-treatment: 2.8, P<0.001), and nasal obstruction (mean VAS pretreatment: 6.5, mean VAS post-treatment: 3.5, P<0.001). Epistaxis frequency decreased by 61%. Olfactory function improved modestly (P=0.040). No severe adverse effects were reported. CONCLUSION:Eucalyptus oil appears to be a safe and effective adjunctive therapy for geriatric rhinitis, particularly for dryness and crusting.

OBJECTIVES:For successful integration and healing, maxillofacial surgical flaps require robust cellular activity and neovascularization. This study aimed to assess the potential of oleuropein as a safe enhancer of maxillofacial flap healing by examining its effects on human dermal fibroblast survival in vitro. Oleuropein is a phenolic compound with tissue-repairing properties. METHODS:HDFa, or human dermal fibroblasts, were cultured under controlled conditions. To identify dose-dependent effects, the cells were exposed to concentrations of 10 to 200 µM oleuropein. Metabolic activity and cellular viability were measured using the MTT colorimetric assay. A positive cytotoxicity control was performed using Triton X-100. Nonlinear regression was used to examine dose-response patterns, and one-way ANOVA was used to assess statistical differences. RESULTS:Oleuropein therapy had no discernible effect on the viability of human dermal fibroblasts across the concentrations tested. All oleuropein-treated groups (10-200 µM) showed cell viability statistically similar to the control group (P>0.05). In addition, nonlinear regression analysis showed no concentration-dependent decrease in cellular metabolic activity. In contrast, the cytotoxic effect of the Triton X-100 control was significant, confirming that the assay was responsive. CONCLUSION:Human dermal fibroblasts are biocompatible with oleuropein in vitro, and doses as high as 200 µM do not cause any harmful effects. These results demonstrate its cellular safety and suggest it could be a useful therapeutic agent for maxillofacial surgery, helping flaps survive and wounds heal.

OBJECTIVE:To determine whether biological therapy is a viable option for individuals with recurrent chronic rhinosinusitis with nasal polyps (CRSwNP), we will assess the clinical outcomes of maximal conventional therapy (MCT). METHODS:For this retrospective analysis, 42 adults with recurrent CRSwNP after prior endoscopic sinus surgery (ESS) were included. Intranasal corticosteroid sprays, a brief oral steroid taper, leukotriene antagonists, culture-directed antibiotics as needed, and optimal care of co-occurring asthma and allergies were components of a standardized MCT protocol that all patients underwent. Baseline and 12-week outcomes were assessed using SNOT-22, NPS, and PNIF (peak nasal inspiratory flow). RESULT:Nearly 70% of patients (29 of 42) showed a statistically significant improvement in their SNOT-22 scores (a decrease of at least 8.9%) after 12 weeks. On average, PNIF increased by 24%, and 57% saw an improvement of at least 1 point in NPS. Thirteen percent (13 out of 42) of patients who attempted MCT failed because of ongoing blockage, polyp recurrence, or co-occurring asthma symptoms; these patients were therefore considered candidates for biologics. No serious side effects were reported. CONCLUSION:In nearly two-thirds of cases, MCT may reduce the need for biologics and provide clinically significant improvement in the majority of patients with recurrent CRSwNP. Identifying the fraction of patients who require biological treatment can be aided by a structured prebiologic evaluation such as this.

OBJECTIVE:Our goal is to help patients with nasal pruritus, a prevalent condition in otolaryngology that can significantly affect their comfort and quality of life. Despite a lack of sufficient clinical investigation, traditional and regional medicines are commonly used to alleviate nasal itching. METHODS:The primary objective of this investigation was to assess the efficacy of jojoba oil, a naturally occurring product, as a topical remedy for nasal pruritus. Forty-six men with chronic nasal pruritus participated in a clinical trial. Intranasal topical jojoba oil was administered to all patients in a controlled environment. A visual analog scale (VAS) was used to measure symptom severity both before and after a specific treatment time. Patient satisfaction and tolerability were also recorded as additional metrics. RESULTS:The results showed that after using jojoba oil, nasal pruritus scores were markedly lower. There was a significant improvement in mean VAS scores compared with baseline values. After therapy, the mean nasal pruritus VAS score decreased considerably from 8.0±0.81 to 2.5±0.5, with a P<0.001. From a clinical standpoint, every patient showed either a full or substantial improvement. Throughout the trial, there were no serious side effects, and most patients were quite satisfied. Everyone who received the treatment reported no side effects. CONCLUSION:Topical jojoba oil appears to be a safe, effective, and well-tolerated way to address an itchy nose. It has shown good clinical results and is derived from a natural source, so it could be an alternative or adjunct treatment. To confirm these results, larger-scale randomized controlled trials are necessary.

OBJECTIVE:We evaluated the olfactory fossa and Keros classification in patients with unilateral mucosal contact points in septal deviation. METHODS:Paranasal sinus computed tomography images of 60 patients with mucosal contact points on the septum were compared with those of the control group (N = 60). The Keros types, septal deviation angles, mucosal contact point angles, olfactory fossa widths and depths, crista galli lengths, widths and pneumatisations, as well as the presence of anatomical variations, were analysed. RESULTS:The depth of the olfactory fossa contralateral to the mucosal contact point was greater in patients with septal deviation compared to those without (p < 0.05). A significant correlation was found between increased crista galli height and a higher Keros degree on the right side (p < 0.05). CONCLUSION:The presence and differences of mucosal contact points should alert surgeons both before and during the surgical procedure, and further studies on this topic are of great importance.

Objective: To compare the effects of septal extension (SE) grafts and columellar strut (CS) grafts reinforced with septocolumellar sutures on nasal tip projection, rotation, and patient-reported outcomes in primary rhinoplasty using standardized photogrammetric analysis. Methods: This retrospective cohort study included 60 patients who underwent primary rhinoplasty between 2019 and 2024 (30 SE and 30 CS grafts reinforced with septocolumellar sutures). Nasal tip projection, rotation, and anthropometric parameters were assessed using Rhinobase software. Functional and esthetic outcomes were evaluated using the Nasal Obstruction Symptom Evaluation Questionnaire (NOSE) and Facial Aesthetic Quality of Life Questionnaire (FACE-Q). Results: The mean age was 27.8 years, and 70% of the participants were female. The mean postoperative follow-up was 9.5±2.7 months. Although baseline nasal length and tip projection were lower in the SE group, both techniques produced comparable postoperative improvements in nasal tip projection, rotation, and nasal length. Postoperative FACE-Q and NOSE scores were also similar between groups, despite lower preoperative FACE-Q scores in the SE group (p=0.003). Conclusion: CS grafts reinforced with septocolumellar sutures achieved functional and esthetic outcomes comparable to SE grafts. These findings suggest that septocolumellar suturing may compensate for the structural advantages traditionally attributed to SE grafts in primary rhinoplasty.

The aim of this paper is to review the physiological functions of the nasal turbinates, evaluate etiologies of nasal obstruction secondary to inferior turbinate hypertrophy, and compare the clinical efficacy of current medical and surgical treatment strategies. A comprehensive narrative literature review was conducted utilizing established scientific databases, including PubMed/Medline, Scopus, Web of Science, and Embase, encompassing articles published between 1977 and 2026. A structured search strategy was applied using keywords such as “turbinate,” “radiofrequency ablation,” “turbinoplasty,” and “turbinectomy.” Peer-reviewed clinical trials, contemporary reviews, and authoritative guidelines were included to synthesize current evidence regarding the efficacy of turbinate treatments. Mucosal hypertrophy of the inferior turbinate is the primary etiology of nasal airway obstruction. First-line pharmacological therapies, comprising intranasal corticosteroids and antihistamines, are effective; however, prolonged use of topical decongestants risks inducing rhinitis medicamentosa. For patients refractory to medical management, surgical interventions like radiofrequency ablation (RFA) and turbinoplasty are preferred. Radiofrequency ablation provides excellent patient tolerance and is performed under local anesthesia, while submucous resection-assisted turbinoplasty demonstrates the highest long-term success in maintaining nasal patency. Across all modalities, current literature strictly emphasizes the maximal preservation of mucosal tissue to prevent “empty nose syndrome,” a debilitating complication characterized by paradoxical loss of airflow sensation. The clinical management of turbinate dysfunction must be highly individualized based on the patient’s symptomatology and structural anatomy. Mucosa-sparing surgical interventions are significantly safer and yield better long-term functional outcomes than aggressive resections. A multidisciplinary approach is essential for achieving optimal therapeutic success.

Background: In this article, the updates in the advancement of allergic rhinitis (AR) were reviewed. Methods: A search of the literature was performed using PubMed, Medline, Google, and Google Scholar search engines between 1975 and 2024. Search terms related to “allergic rhinitis” or “allergy” or “treatment” or “pathophysiology” or “causes” or “allergen immunotherapy” or “sublingual immunotherapy (SLIT)” or “subcutaneous immunotherapy (SCIT)” were identified and queried to select recent and relevant articles. Results: Allergic rhinitis presents with symptoms such as sneezing, a runny nose, and nasal blockage, accompanied by itchiness of the nose and palate, and affects approximately 20-30% of adults. The underlying factors contributing to AR can vary depending on whether the symptoms manifest seasonally, persistently, or sporadically. Irritant factors like “smoke, pollution, and strong odors” can exacerbate symptoms in individuals with AR, which are also common triggers for “vasomotor rhinitis.” Rapid hypersensitivity skin testing, commonly referred to as “skin prick tests,” offers a quick and economical method to identify the presence of “allergen-specific immunoglobulin E.” Glucocorticoid nasal sprays are considered the most efficient treatment for patients with persistent and significant nasal symptoms. Additional treatment choices encompass “oral antihistamines,” “nasal sprays containing antihistamines,” mast-cell stabilizers like “cromolyn sodium,” “leukotriene modifiers,” and “ipratropium.” Subcutaneous immunotherapy has demonstrated the effectiveness in managing allergic rhinoconjunctivitis and asthma; albeit, it typically entails regular injections spanning 3-5 years. Since patients are typically treated with a single type of allergen, SLIT is more suitable for those who have an allergen that is the underlying cause of their symptoms. Conclusion: Allergic rhinitis is commonly seen in the population and requires significant budgets for treatment. Glucocorticoid nasal sprays and antihistamines are primarily administered treatments. In necessary cases, immunotherapy options such as SCIT or SLIT can also be applied. Cite this article as: Muluk NB. Allergic rhinitis: updates of advances. B-ENT. 2026;21(3):133-146.

OBJECTIVES:We investigated the concentration-dependent cytotoxic effects of Marrubium alysson L. extract on HNO210 human laryngeal carcinoma cells. METHODS:The HNO210 human laryngeal carcinoma cell line (BHC11100312, BioHippo) was cultured in Dulbecco's Modified Eagle Medium (DMEM) (ATCC, 30-2002). Seven working concentrations (10-500 μL/mL) of Marrubium alysson L. were prepared. The antiproliferative effect was assessed using the colorimetric MTT assay. RESULTS:Marrubium alysson L. inhibits the viability of HNO210 cells. The corresponding logIC₅₀ (2.681 μL/mL), along with a high coefficient of determination (R²=0.9960), confirms the reliability of the dose-response relationship. While lower concentrations largely preserve cell viability, higher doses significantly suppress metabolic activity. Marrubium alysson L. extract demonstrates a concentration-dependent cytotoxic effect on HNO210 cells. After 24 hours of exposure, treated cells showed notable morphologic changes, including cell shrinkage, rounding, and detachment from the culture surface, indicating loss of membrane integrity and decreased adherence. CONCLUSION:Marrubium alysson L. inhibits the viability of HNO210 laryngeal carcinoma cells. It exerts a concentration-dependent cytotoxic effect and anticancer potential against these cells. It affects cell morphology and reduces adherence. Marrubium alysson L. has potential as a source of bioactive compounds with antiproliferative activity for designing highly effective anticancer drugs.

This study aims to investigate the common arrhythmias seen in patients with obstructive sleep apnea (OSA) and the association between the rhythm Holter values and OSA. A 24-hour rhythm Holter monitor was attached to 90 patients diagnosed with obstructive sleep apnea (mean age 48.65 ± 8.41). All patients’ medical histories were taken, and laboratory tests were conducted. Single-night polysomnographies were scored under the recommendations of the American Academy of Sleep Medicine. There was no significant difference in age between the study and the control groups. No statistically significant difference was observed between the groups regarding gender distribution. The study group’s minimum heart rate was significantly lower. The difference in supraventricular ectopy percentage (SVE) between the study and control groups was statistically significant. An important difference was also observed between the groups in terms of ventricular ectopics (VE) percentage. In OSA, hypoxemia may increase vagal tone and create a predisposition for arrhythmias. Also, increased vagal activity observed in OSA, leads to relative bradycardia during obstructive events which may be due to the diving reflex, and supraventricular and ventricular arrhythmias. The rhythm Holter is a useful non-invasive test for the early arrhythmia diagnosis in patients with OSA. Also, conducting polysomnography in patients with arrhythmias detected by Holter monitoring may facilitate early OSA diagnosis and improve treatment.

This study aimed to evaluate microplastics (MPs) in nasal lavage samples and the effect of nasal irrigation in children with adenoid hypertrophy (AH), with or without otitis media with effusion (OME). Children with AH, AH/OME, and healthy controls were included. Adenoid size was assessed endoscopically as the percentage of choanal obstruction. Nasal lavage samples were collected at baseline and after 1 month of twice-daily saline nasal irrigation. MP density and total MP count were quantified. A total of 61 children were included: 23 with AH, 19 with AH/OME, and 19 controls. Baseline MP density was 1.56 ± 0.53, 1.79 ± 0.94, and 1.97 ± 0.83 pieces/ml, respectively; total MP counts were 4.39 ± 1.61, 4.10 ± 2.53, and 6.47 ± 4.18. Baseline MP density was similar among groups, while total MP count was higher in controls than in one AH group. After irrigation, MP density and total MP count decreased significantly only in controls (p < 0.001 and p = 0.003), whereas no statistically significant reductions were detected in the AH groups. Adenoid size was negatively correlated with Δ MP density (r=-0.335, p = 0.008) and Δ total MP count (r=-0.322, p = 0.011), suggesting lower clearance with greater obstruction. Hierarchical regression showed that, after adjustment for age and baseline MP density, adenoid percentage was independently associated with reduced MP density clearance, but not with total MP count reduction. Exploratory ROC analysis showed limited discriminatory ability for adenoid percentage in identifying reduced MP clearance (AUC = 0.662). MPs were detected in nearly all children. In this exploratory study, adenoid hypertrophy showed a possible association with reduced post-lavage microplastic clearance; however, baseline findings did not support a simple microplastic trapping mechanism, and causality cannot be inferred from nasal lavage data alone. Further age-matched tissue-level studies are needed.

OBJECTIVES:The purpose of this survey research is to examine the relationship between anxiety and depression in our laryngopharyngeal reflux patients. METHODS:Group 1 consisted of 80 individuals diagnosed with laryngopharyngeal reflux (LPR). Group 2, the control group, included 80 individuals without LPR, all of whom were the same age and sex. We compared the groups based on educational attainment and socioeconomic status. We used the Hamilton Anxiety Rating Scale (HAM-A) to assess anxiety and the Hamilton Depressive Rating Scale (HAM-D) to assess depressive status. RESULTS:Groups did not differ significantly in income or educational attainment. The patient and control groups had notably elevated HAM-A Anxiety scores, with medians of 11.0 (8.0-15.0) and 5.0 (3.0-6.0), respectively. The patient group's median HAM-D Depression score was 9.0 (5.0-12.75), which is considerably higher than the control group's 4.5 (3.0-6.0). CONCLUSION:These findings show that the sick group had significantly greater levels of both anxiety and depression. Patients with LPR may benefit from a professional strategy that includes psychiatric evaluation and proper treatment of anxiety and depression.

OBJECTIVES:In the present study, we investigated the efficacy of nasal tip grafts for nasal tip shaping and for evaluating rhinoplasty outcome evaluation (ROE). METHODS:Patients who underwent open rhinoplasty and received various grafts to improve tip support, including alar batten graft, alar rim graft, caudal septal extension graft, columellar strut, shield graft, tongue-in-groove, and tip-onlay graft, were included in this study (n=510). All follow-up items were recorded during the preoperative, early postoperative, and late postoperative periods. Rhinoplasty outcome evaluation scores, nasofrontal angle, and nasolabial angle were evaluated. RESULTS:A statistically significant difference was observed between the mean preoperative and postoperative questionnaire scores in the graft groups (P<0.001). Shield graft, tongue-in-groove, and tip-onlay graft groups showed better results than many others. A statistically significant difference was observed between the preoperative and postoperative mean nasolabial angle values in the tongue-in-groove, shield graft, caudal septal extension graft, and columellar strut groups (P<0.001). In addition, a statistically significant difference was found between the preoperative and postoperative mean nasofrontal angle values across the graft groups (P<0.001), with significant changes observed in the tongue-in-groove, shield, caudal septal extension, and columellar strut groups. However, these changes in the nasofrontal angle are considered not directly related to the type of graft used but rather to the dorsal hump reduction performed in these patients. CONCLUSION:These considerations underscore the limitation of attributing patient satisfaction solely to graft selection. They also highlight the importance of comprehensive preoperative counseling and multifactorial outcome assessment. Future studies using more controlled surgical variables or stratified analyses may help clarify the independent contribution of specific grafting techniques to both objective nasal angles and patient-perceived aesthetic success.

To review the physiological mechanisms, neural and molecular mediators, and clinical pathologies associated with the sneezing reflex. A comprehensive narrative review was conducted utilizing established databases (PubMed/Medline, Scopus, Web of Science, Embase), covering articles published up to 2025. A structured search strategy applied keywords such as “sneezing reflex,” “neuromedin B (NMB),” “trigeminal nucleus,” “allergic rhinitis,” “chronic rhinosinusitis,” and “neuromodulation.” The sneeze reflex is a complex protective mechanism divided into an initial sensory phase and an efferent respiratory phase, orchestrated by the ventromedial spinal trigeminal nucleus in the brainstem. Signal transmission strictly relies on small-diameter Trpv1 + nasal sensory neurons releasing Neuromedin B (NMB). Triggers range from chemical irritants to allergens. Pathological hyperactive sneezing is prominent in allergic rhinitis and Type 2 chronic rhinosinusitis (CRSwNP), driven by profound neuroimmune cross-talk. Conversely, Lateral Medullary Syndrome can abolish the ability to sneeze despite a preserved urge. Additionally, the photic sneeze reflex represents a visual-somatosensory cross-activation, while psychogenic intractable sneezing roots in psychological distress. For recalcitrant hyperactive sneezing, specific neuromodulation treatments, such as capsaicin desensitization and posterior nasal nerve (PNN) cryoablation or neurectomy, effectively disrupt the local neuro-secretory circuitry. Sneezing transcends a simple automatic response, functioning as a highly coordinated neuroimmune reflex. Elucidating its precise neural circuitry provides critical insights for developing targeted pharmacological and procedural neuromodulation treatments for sneezing disorders, ultimately enhancing patient care.

ObjectivesThis study aimed to examine the diffusion properties, signal characteristics and size of the parotid and submandibular gland in neck magnetic resonance (MR) imaging.MethodsIn the study, neck MRI images of 80 patients, 40 men and 40 women, were examined. Area and "Apparent Diffusion Coefficient (ADC)" measurements of bilateral parotid and submandibular glands were measured in MRI images. The findings were compared between genders and between two age groups: 18-50 years and 51-80 years.ResultsLeft submandibular area measurements in men (394.4±107.1 mm2) were found to be statistically significantly larger than in women (330.1±89.8 mm2) (p<0.05). A significant difference was detected in right and left submandibular and parotid gland heterogeneity degrees according to the age groups of the patients (p<0.05). While grade 0 and grade 1 were more common in the 18-50 age groups, grade 1 and grade 2 were more common in the 51-80 age groups. In each area; and ADC measurements of the parotid glands; and submandibular glands bilaterally, there were positive correlations (p<0.05). However, there were negative correlations between ADC and area measurements in parotid glands (p<0.05).ConclusionAs a result, it was observed that the heterogeneity in the gland increased as the age of the patients increased. Neck MRI is frequently used today in the diagnosis of salivary gland diseases, and it is thought that heterogeneity in the salivary gland with age may be helpful in the diagnostic steps in MRI.

Objective We evaluated airway volume in patients after total laryngectomy.Methods A total of 53 patients who underwent total laryngectomy were included in this study. Twelve of the patients had supraglottic Ca and 41 had transglottic Ca. Total lung volume, and intrapulmonary and tracheal airway volumes were measured.Results After total laryngectomy, tracheal airway volume decreased more in transglottic Ca patients compared with supraglottic Ca patients (p < 0.05). Even though intrapulmonary airway volumes and total lung volumes were not different between transglottic Ca and supraglottic Ca patients (p > 0.05), these volumes decreased post-operatively in both groups (p < 0.05). In older patients, the post-operative decrease in the tracheal airway volume was higher than in younger patients (p < 0.05). Pre-operative radiotherapy was applied in 50.0 per cent of supraglottic Ca patients and 58.5 per cent of transglottic Ca patients (p > 0.05).Conclusion Because lower airway volume and total lung volume decrease after total laryngectomy, pulmonary rehabilitation should be administered post-operatively and appropriate follow up is essential to prevent tracheostomal narrowing.

This review examines the dual relationship between climate change and otolaryngology by assessing the environmental impacts on upper airway diseases, particularly allergic rhinitis (AR), and identifying concrete, evidence-based strategies to reduce greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions within surgical practice. A narrative literature review was conducted to provide an interpretative synthesis of current knowledge across two distinct but interconnected domains: climate-driven airway health impacts and the environmental sustainability of surgical care. Literature was purposively selected from major databases to support this discussion. Available evidence suggests that elevated CO₂ and particulate matter (PM2.5) act synergistically to increase the allergenicity and mucosal penetration of pollen, significantly exacerbating AR, chronic rhinosinusitis, and sleep-disordered breathing. Marginalized populations face disproportionate exposure to these health impacts due to socioeconomic disparities. In the surgical domain, healthcare contributes approximately 5.2

OBJECTIVES:This study's overarching goal is to determine whether Cucurbita pepo seed oil (pumpkin seed oil, PSO) is suitable for intranasal delivery as a transfer medium, based on its physicochemical profile and biocompatibility with human nasal epithelial cell cultures. Research into PSO's safety and effects on the epithelium might lead to the development of new intranasal medicinal delivery methods based on natural lipids. METHODS:Septorhinoplasty often involves obtaining samples of nasal epithelium from healthy tissue. To ensure the highest level of sterility and eliminate potential microbial contamination, freshly harvested nasal tissue was immersed in phosphate-buffered saline (PBS) containing a 2% (v/v) antibiotic-antimycotic solution for 3 washes. After the attachment phase, cells were incubated continuously for 24 hours with C. pepo seed oil at concentrations of 1, 5, 15, 25, 50, 75, and 100 µL per well. The MTT colorimetric assay was used to quantify cellular metabolic activity, which was then used to determine cell viability. RESULTS:A half-maximal inhibitory concentration (IC50) of 62.75 µL, corresponding to a logIC50 of 1.798, was identified by dose-response modeling as an inhibitory trend. Regression analysis showed a strong correlation between oil exposure and decreased metabolic activity (R2=0.8978). Cell viability evaluations indicated that, when cells were exposed to C. pepo seed oil, metabolic performance changed gradually across the examined dose range. The reference condition, consisting of untreated cells, was used to normalize viability values. Cells showed a gradual slowing of metabolic activity with increasing oil volume, rather than a sudden cytotoxic response. Compared with the negative control group, statistical analysis showed that cell viability was significantly reduced by all tested doses of C. pepo seed oil. Rather than a rapid cytotoxic threshold, the magnitude of the viability loss increased steadily with increasing oil volume, suggesting a cumulative inhibitory effect. CONCLUSION:Cautionary formulation and dosing procedures are crucial because of the substantial decrease in survivability at higher doses. Additional research, including in vivo models and clinical assessments, is necessary to determine safe exposure limits, delivery modalities, and therapeutic effectiveness. However, in vitro evidence supports potential low-concentration ENT applications. In general, rhinoplasty and septoplasty procedures, among others in otolaryngology, show potential for the use of C. pepo seed oil as a locally applied, biologically active substance. PSO may be suitable for intranasal delivery as a transfer medium, based on its dose-dependent biocompatibility with human nasal epithelial cells. It should be investigated in future experimental studies.