Caterpillar–food plant records collected over approximately 38 years in the Area de Conservación Guanacaste (ACG) in northwestern Costa Rica are described and summarized. The data comprise 431,212 individual rearing records, 197,366 of which represent unique plant–herbivore associations, i.e., same species pair found on separate dates and at different plants of the same species. These represent 29,187 different caterpillar–food plant associations between 2,489 plant and 7,160 Lepidoptera species. We evaluate changes in the taxonomic composition of the food plant flora and Lepidoptera fauna between 1990 and 2020 and across habitat/community types. Food plant and caterpillar community species richness in the rain forest changed considerably over the first 10 years but remained more stable since. Dry forest communities were more consistent than in rain forest. The cloud forest biota was the most consistent between 1995 and 2010, but as in dry forest, the caterpillar fauna changed considerably during 2015–2020. Plant species composition was more constant than caterpillar composition. The taxonomic distributions of diet specialists and generalists are explored. Most of the species-rich Lepidoptera families contain many specialists, variously concentrated throughout each family, though highly polyphagous collectively. The exceptions include Sphingidae, which show preference for Rubiaceae, Hesperiinae for monocotyledons, and non-Hesperiinae skippers for Fabaceae. Among plant families for which there are over 1,000 independent rearings, Acanthaceae, Apocynaceae, Arecaceae, Costaceae, Melastomataceae, Moraceae, Piperaceae, Poaceae, Rubiaceae, Rutaceae, and Solanaceae hosted the greatest proportion of specialists. However, the level at which dietary specialization corresponds to taxonomic rank varies with both caterpillar and plant taxon. Most fern-feeders are polyphagous with respect to fern families but still specialists on Polypodiopsida. A selection of plant families with conspicuous allelochemical and/or structural defenses and a selection of caterpillars and caterpillar families with equally conspicuous counter-defenses were examined. We determined that (1) unpalatable, aposematic herbivores tend to be specialists and (2) families of plants predominantly consumed by highly defended caterpillars host fewer polyphagous herbivores than families with less conspicuously defended plants. Highly toxic plant families with the fewest rearings, such as Aristolochiaceae and Zamiaceae, hosted many monophagous caterpillars. Biochemical and structural plant defenses appear to mediate herbivore diet breadth for many plant families.

Ethnopharmacological relevance: Guarea genus comprises tropical and subtropical terrestrial herbs inhabiting Central and South America. These plants, including Guarea guidonia (L.) Sleumer, have anti-inflammatory, analgesic, antibacterial, antiviral, and immune-enhancing properties. Aim of the study: Although various species of the Guarea genus are known for their medicinal properties, comprehensive data on their anti-inflammatory effects remain limited. Therefore, we investigated the NLRP3 inflammasome-inhibiting effects of the Guarea genus in this study. Materials and methods: To evaluate the anti-inflammatory activities of 18 members of the Guarea genus, we treated NLRP3 inflammasome activators with their extracts in LPS-primed J774A.1 and THP-1 cells. Cell viability was determined by water soluble tetrazolium salt (WST) and cytokine production, protein expression, and nuclear fractionation were determined by western blotting. Reactive oxygen species (ROS) production and apoptosis-associated speck-like protein containing a caspase recruitment domain (ASC) oligomerization were measured using confocal microscopic analysis. Inflammation-induced zebrafish was used in the in vivo experiments. Results: Among the 18 Guarea members tested, Guarea microcarpa C. DC. extract (GM) exhibited no cytotoxicity and specifically suppressed the activation of the NLRP3 inflammasome, but not of the AIM2 or NLRC4 inflammasomes, by inhibiting the ATPase activity of NLRP3. This was achieved without affecting NF-kappa B signaling, potassium efflux, or intracellular ROS production, all of which are involved in NLRP3 activation. The reduced ATPase activity of NLRP3 led to decreased ASC oligomerization. Furthermore, GM exhibited anti-inflammatory effects in vivo. Additionally, GM treatment alleviated inflammation at the organismal level in an LPS-induced inflammation model using zebrafish embryos. Conclusion: Our results demonstrate the anti-inflammatory effects of GM via suppressing the NLRP3 inflammasome. Therefore, GM can be a potential therapeutic candidate for various inflammatory diseases caused by aberrant NLRP3 inflammasome activation.

Trichospira verticillata is an annual herb that belongs to the family Asteraceae. Trichospira verticillata extract (TVE) elicits anti-plasmodial activity; however, there has been no detailed report about its anti-inflammatory effects and molecular mechanisms. In addition, herbal plants exhibit anti-inflammatory effects by suppressing the NLRP3 inflammasome. Therefore, the primary goal of this study was to examine the effects of TVE on NLRP3 inflammasome activation by measuring interleukin-1β (IL-1β) secretion. We treated lipopolysaccharides (LPS)-primed J774A.1 and THP-1 cells with TVE, which attenuated NLRP3 inflammasome activation. Notably, TVE did not affect nuclear factor-kappa B (NF-κB) signalling or intracellular reactive oxygen species (ROS) production and potassium efflux, suggesting that it inactivates the NLRP3 inflammasome via other mechanisms. Moreover, TVE suppressed the formation of apoptosis-associated speck-like protein (ASC) speck and oligomerization. Immunoprecipitation data revealed that TVE reduced the binding of NLRP3 to NIMA-related kinase 7 (NEK7), resulting in reduced ASC oligomerization and speck formation. Moreover, TVE alleviated neutrophilic asthma (NA) symptoms in mice. This study demonstrates that TVE modulates the binding of NLPR3 to NEK7, thereby reporting novel insights into the mechanism by which TVE inhibits NLRP3 inflammasome. These findings suggest TVE as a potential therapeutic of NLRP3 inflammasome-mediated diseases, particularly NA.

Background and Aims Theaceae, with three tribes, nine genera and more than 200 species, are of great economic and ecological importance. Recent phylogenetic analyses based on plastomic data resolved the relationships among the three tribes and the intergeneric relationships within two of those tribes. However, generic-level relationships within the largest tribe, Theeae, were not fully resolved. The role of putative whole-genome duplication (WGD) events in the family and possible hybridization events among genera within Theeae also remain to be tested further. Methods Transcriptomes or low-depth whole-genome sequencing of 57 species of Theaceae, as well as additional plastome sequence data, were generated. Using a dataset of low-copy nuclear genes, we reconstructed phylogenetic relationships using concatenated, species tree and phylogenetic network approaches. We further conducted molecular dating analyses and inferred possible WGD events by examining the distribution of the number of synonymous substitutions per synonymous site (Ks) for paralogues in each species. For plastid protein-coding sequences , phylogenies were reconstructed for comparison with the results obtained from analysis of the nuclear dataset. Results Based on the 610 low-copy nuclear genes (858 606 bp in length) investigated, Stewartieae was resolved as sister to the other two tribes. Within Theeae, the Apterosperma-Laplacea clade grouped with Pyrenaria, leaving Camellia and Polyspora as sister. The estimated ages within Theaceae were largely consistent with previous studies based mainly on plastome data. Two reticulation events within Camellia and one between the common ancestor of Gordonia and Schima were found. All members of the tea family shared two WGD events, an older At-gamma and a recent Ad-beta; both events were also shared with the outgroups (Diapensiaceae, Pentaphylacaceae, Styracaceae and Symplocaceae). Conclusions Our analyses using low-copy nuclear genes improved understanding of phylogenetic relationships at the tribal and generic levels previously proposed based on plastome data, but the phylogenetic position of the Apterosperma-Laplacea clade needs more attention. There is no evidence for extensive intergeneric hybridization within Theeae or for a Theaceae-specific WGD event. Land bridges (e.g. the Bering land bridge) during the Late Oligocene may have permitted the intercontinental plant movements that facilitated the putative ancient introgression between the common ancestor of Gordonia and Schima.

Theaceae, with three tribes and nine genera, is a family of great economic and ecological importance. Recent phylogenetic analyses based on plastid genome resolved the relationship among three tribes and the intergeneric relationships within Gordonieae and Stewartieae. However, generic level relationships within the largest tribe Theeae were not fully resolved and potential hybridization among genera within Theeae revealed previously also remains to be tested further. Here we conducted a comprehensive phylogenomic study of Theaceae based on transcriptomes and low-depth whole-genome sequencing of 57 species as well as additional plastome sequence data from previous work. Phylogenetic analyses suggested that Stewartieae was the first-diverging clade in Theaceae, consistent with previous study using plastomic data. Within Theeae, the highly supported Apterosperma-Laplacea clade grouped with Pyrenaria with maximum support based on the partitioned and unpartitioned concatenation analyses using the 610 low-copy nuclear genes, leaving Camellia and Polyspora as another sister genera in the tribe. PhyloNet analyses suggested one reticulation event within Camellia and Pyrenaria respectively, but no intergeneric reticulations were detected in Theeae. Another introgression was found between Gordonia lasianthus and the common ancestor of Gordonieae during the Late Oligocene. The existing land bridges (e.g. Bering land bridge) might have facilitated this ancient introgression. Further researches need to be conducted to uncover the interspecific introgression pattern within Camellia. Ks distribution analyses supported the tea family shared one whole-genome duplication (WGD) event Ad-β, which was recently mapped to the clade containing core Ericales, Primuloids, Polemonioids and Lecythidaceae.

It is time to synthesize the knowledge that has been generated through more than 260 years of botanical exploration, taxonomic and, more recently, phylogenetic research throughout the world. The adoption of an updated Global Strategy for Plant Conservation (GSPC) in 2011 provided the essential impetus for the development of the World Flora Online (WFO) project. The project represents an international, coordinated effort by the botanical community to achieve GSPC Target 1, an electronic Flora of all plants. It will be a first-ever unique and authoritative global source of information on the world's plant diversity, compiled, curated, moderated and updated by an expert and specialist-based community (Taxonomic Expert Networks - "TENs" - covering a taxonomic group such as family or order) and actively managed by those who have compiled and contributed the data it includes. Full credit and acknowledgement will be given to the original sources, allowing users to refer back to the primary data. A strength of the project is that it is led and endorsed by a global consortium of more than 40 leading botanical institutions worldwide. A first milestone for producing the World Flora Online is to be accomplished by the end of 2020, but the WFO Consortium is committed to continuing the WFO programme beyond 2020 when it will develop its full impact as the authoritative source of information on the world's plant biodiversity.

As a result of concerted efforts of the community of Annonaceae taxonomists, increasingly detailed knowledge of the diversity of the Neotropical genera has been documented. With the exception of just two large genera, Annona and Xylopia, all Neotropical Annonaceae have been revised within the last 25 years. Subsequent to these publications, many new specimens have been collected and sent to us in Leiden for identification. These included a number that, despite the advanced state of taxonomic knowledge, proved to represent rarely collected, undescribed species. Here we describe 12 new species of Annona, Guatteria, Klarobelia, Tetrameranthus, and Xylopia. These species serve to illustrate the still underestimated diversity of the Neotropical flora, even in well studied plant groups like Annonaceae.

Abstract Aim We sought to determine the relationship of forest composition and alpha diversity (the species diversity of a local assemblage) to altitude, soil, and spatial factors over a 440–2,950 m a.s.l gradient. Location Altitudinal gradient on the Caribbean slope of the Talamanca Cordillera, Costa Rica. Taxon Angiosperm and gymnosperm trees, palms, and tree ferns. Methods We measured and identified all stems ≥10 cm dbh in 32 0.25‐ha undisturbed rain forest plots over the gradient. We determined compositional patterns using Non‐Metric Multidimensional Scaling (NMS) ordination, and used linear regressions to explore the relationship between four alpha diversity metrics and altitude. With variation partitioning (VARPART), we determined the compositional variation explained by altitude, soil, and spatial variables quantified using Principle Components of Neighbor matrices. Results We identified 425 species. NMS axis 1 separated a lowland zone (440–1,120 m asl) from a transitional one dominated by holarctic Oreomunnea mexicana (1,400–1,600 m asl) and Quercus‐dominated forests at altitudes >2,100 m asl. The lowland zone was separated into two clusters of plots on NMS axis 2, the first in the 430–620 m asl range and the second at 1,000–1,120 masl. Regressions showed that all alpha diversity metrics were strongly negatively related to altitude (R 2 > 0.78). Overall, adjusted R 2 from VARPART was 0.43, with 0.30, 0.21, and 0.17 for altitude, soil, and space respectively. The respective adjusted R 2 of individual matrices, on controlling for the other two, was 0.06, 0.05 and 0.09 (p < 0.001). Main conclusions There are two well‐defined forest compositional zones on this gradient—lowlands 430–1,120 m asl and montane forests >2,150 m asl—with a transitional zone at 1,400–1,600 m asl, where lowland tropical and montane holarctic species are found together. Montane forests are very distinct in their composition and low alpha diversity. Vegetation and soil respond to altitude, and therefore temperature, as an integrated system, a model that goes beyond niche assembly as shown by the significant effect of space in the VARPART.

Climate change and land use conversion are global threats to biodiversity. Protected areas and biological corridors have been historically implemented as biodiversity conservation measures and suggested as tools within planning frameworks to respond to climate change. However, few applications to national protected areas systems considering climate change in tropical countries exist. Our goal is to define new priority areas for biodiversity conservation and biological corridors within an existing protected areas network. We aim at preserving samples of all biodiversity under climate change and facilitate species dispersal to reduce the vulnerability of biodiversity. The analysis was based on a three step strategy: i) protect representative samples of various levels of terrestrial biodiversity across protected area systems given future redistributions under climate change, ii) identify and protect areas with reduced climate velocities where populations could persist for relatively longer periods, and iii) ensure species dispersal between conservation areas through climatic connectivity pathways. The study was integrated into a participatory planning approach for biodiversity conservation in Costa Rica. Results showed that there should be an increase of 11 % and 5 % on new conservation areas and biological corridors respectively. Our approach integrates climate change into the design of a network of protected areas for tropical ecosystems and can be applied to other biodiversity rich areas to reduce the vulnerability of biodiversity to global warming.

1. Escuela de Posgrado, Sede Central Centro Agronómico Tropical de Investigación y Enseñanza (CATIE), Turrialba 30501, Costa Rica 2. Programa de Producción y Conservación de Bosques, CATIE, Sede Central 7170, Turrialba 30501, Costa Rica 3. Unidad de Bioestadística, CATIE, Sede Central 7170, Turrialba 30501, Costa Rica 4. Programa de Cambio Climático, CATIE, Sede Central 7170, Turrialba 30501, Costa Rica 5. Herbario del Instituto Nacional de Biodiversidad de Costa Rica (INBio), Heredia 22-3100, Costa Rica

SUMMARY. A variety of practices can greatly diminish the impacts of forest management on biodiversity. A case study from a subtropical humid forest reserve in Misiones, Argentina is presented to illustrate a “uniform spacing” method of forest harvest. In this method, trees are selected for extraction or marked for retention according to their scarcity, their horizontal distribution, and their characteristics to serve as seed trees. Three years after harvesting, the forest cut by uniform spacing had the highest density of seedlings of total as well as commercial species, and it also exhibited high diversity of understory plants other than trees. A case study of a silvicultural experiment carried out by CATIE in Costa Rica is also presented, focusing on the effects of logging and post-harvest silvicultural treatments on forest species richness and composition during the first 6-7 yr following logging and 5 yr following the application of treatments. The forest studied was shown to exhibit marked compositional variation in relation to a topographical gradient after the implementation of the experiment; such □ or ecosystem diversity should be taken into account in all future evaluations of the effect of forest management on plant biodiversity. Post-harvest silvicultural treatments caused an immediate reduction in species-richness = 10 cm dbh in 1.0 ha due to the chance elimination of species represented by one or a small number of individuals in the plots, and may affect overall species composition in the medium term as they are directed to favoring commercial species by decreasing competition from non-commercial species. Species richness declined under both silvicultural treatments, however, no changes of species-richness or composition as a result of silvicultural treatment were evident in the forest understory (individuals 2.5-9.9 cm dbh). The only detectable changes in understory plant biodiversity were caused by the felling and extraction of timber, and these changes were restricted to the very localized areas disturbed by these management operations. The application of low-intensity logging methods with selection of remnant trees requires detailed pre- and post-harvest forest inventories and follow up of treatments to ensure successful regeneration and growth of desired species. The Costa Rican study shows that different forest management operations (logging and silviculture in this case) may have different effects on plant biodiversity; this perspective should be applied to future studies in order to better understand the balance between production and conservation in tropical forests. Long-term follow up is needed to assess the true effects of forest management on biodiversity, including natural regeneration as well as growth dynamics of trees, until a whole harvest cycle is completed.