The growing global population and climate crisis demand expanding non-animal protein options. Single-cell protein biomass, referred to as "Solein", is produced by the hydrogen-oxidising bacterium Xanthobacter sp. SoF1 and is a promising, sustainable source of protein and dietary fibre, especially when created using renewable energy. This study investigates Solein protein powder (SPP) for its composition and techno-functional properties, comparing it to pea protein isolate (PPI). SPP had a lower fat content and higher dietary fibre, while matching the protein content of PPI. SPP met all indispensable amino acid requirements for adults over the age of three, as outlined by the FAO in 2013. A milk alternative resembling semi-skimmed cow's milk was produced from SPP and PPI. These emulsions were fermented with a commercial starter culture containing Streptococcus thermophilus. The fermentation process was monitored by tracking pH, total titratable acidity, and microbial growth. The resulting yoghurt alternative (YA) underwent textural and rheological analysis. Solein protein powder yoghurt alternative (SPP-YA) exhibited faster acidification, greater microbial growth, improved water retention, and a texture similar to dairy yoghurt. Static in vitro digestion revealed moderate protein digestibility of the non-fermented SPP emulsion (63.8-67.5%), based on total amino acids, free amino groups, and total nitrogen, with an in vitro Digestible Indispensable Amino Acid Score (DIAAS) of (51.0 ± 6.1%). Fermentation slightly reduced digestibility (57.8-59.6%) and DIAAS (48.3 ± 1.4%), with isoleucine as the limiting amino acid. This work provides the first insight into the structural and nutritional performance of hydrogen-oxidising bacterial protein in non-dairy YA.

Single cell proteins offer a sustainable protein source for future populations, however their potential as main ingredients in food structuring is still unexplored. The aim of this study was to investigate how incubation temperature (20 or 40 degrees C) and concentration affect the acid-induced gelation of bacterial single cell protein (SCP), using glucono-delta-lactone as the acidulant. Furthermore, the influence of acidification rate on the structural development of SCP was evaluated in relation to conventional protein-rich ingredients (skimmed milk powder (Milk) and soy protein isolate (SPI)). Despite significant variation in the compositions of the different proteins, all protein suspensions were prepared at 3.5% protein content. In both milk and SPI, the acidification rate was a key factor influencing the reorganization of protein networks during structure formation and the resulting gel characteristics. Conversely, this effect was not pronounced in SCP. The rheological measurements showed that temperature influenced the time required to reach the gelling point (tg) across all protein samples. In contrast to Milk and SPI, temperature had less impact on the pH at tg and on the structure velocity (dG*/dt/tg) of SCP. SCP gels maintained a moderate water-holding capacity and exhibited low gel strength, regardless of the temperature at which acidification occurred. Microstructure analysis revealed that SCP gels showed higher porosity compared to other samples. By increasing the SCP content (>= 6.2% protein), the impact of temperature on gel strength and WHC was more pronounced. While SCP has potential as a structuring protein for non-dairy yoghurt, further studies are required to fully grasp its intricate structure, composition, and function.

Faba protein concentrate (FPC) was fermented and then dried using three different techniques: oven drying, drum drying and lyophilization. This study aimed to investigate how common lab drying and industry drying methods affect the functional and sensory properties as well as the in vitro digestibility of FPC after fermentation. Fermented and dried FPCs were also extruded with pea protein isolate to create meat analogues. Oven and drum drying affected protein denaturation degree. This change was reflected in solubility and water binding capacity, which in turn affected viscosity and particle size. Furthermore, oven and drum drying also masked better the off-flavours caused by FPC and fermentation compared to the lyophilized sample. Differences in extrudates structure were less evident as 50% pea protein isolate was incorporated to the matrix, however, extrudate with drum dried material showed slightly more cohesive and fibrous structure compared to other extrudates. Extrudates had comparable in vitro digestibility with chicken control. Although drum drying provided the most improvements in sensory and textural characteristics, oven drying proved to be a practical laboratory alternative, yielding outcomes more comparable to industrial processing than traditional lyophilization. This study showed that drying method has a clear impact on the properties of fermented FPC and it has the potential to improve the functionality and flavour of faba for meat analogue purposes.

This study evaluated meat analogues using high-moisture extrusion (HME) using faba protein concentrate (FPC) alone (Control) and blends with single-cell proteins (SCPs): microalgae Chlorella vulgaris (SCP1) and bacteria Xanthobacter spp. (SCP2). Three blends were formulated via linear programming based on the beneficial nutrients content in meat (beef, pork and chicken): Blend1 (60 % FPC + 40 % SCP1), Blend2 (22.5 % FPC + 77.5 % SCP2), and Blend3 (13.5 % FPC + 11 % SCP1 + 75.5 % SCP2). Composition, texture, phytic acid and in vitro digestibility analyses assessed protein quality and mineral bioaccessibility. Samples were oven cooked before assays to simulate typical consumption. Cooking caused minor structural changes, without significantly affecting protein denaturation or phytic acid levels, as extrusion was the dominant thermal process. Protein digestibility was high (close to 100 %) across all samples and generally unaffected by cooking. SCP inclusion significantly improved amino acid profiles, with Blend1 and Blend2 classified as excellent sources and Control and Blend3 as good sources of essential amino acids. Minerals such as manganese and potassium showed enhanced bioaccessibility linked to reduced phytic acid levels due to SCP incorporation and extrusion. Compared to average meat and dietary reference values, extruded blends demonstrated promising nutritional equivalency, supporting their potential as sustainable, nutrient-dense meat analogues. This study highlights the benefit of combining alternative protein blends with high-impact extrusion to enhance meat substitute nutritional quality.

This study aimed to demonstrate the key operational factors influencing the mechanical and sensory properties of chickpea protein concentrate (70 %) during fibrous structure formation in high-moisture extrusion processing. Creating fibrous structures from plant proteins is often unpredictable and relies on trial and error. To achieve more thorough understanding on this matter, this study used experimental design including validation to model the relationship between selected extrusion variables (melt temperature, water feed, and screw speed) and measured extrudate characteristics including mechanical properties, photos, tactile and mouthfeel sensory properties, and colour values. Additionally, statistical analysis including principal component analysis were employed to visualise and summarise the results. In general, the results showed that increasing melt temperature had a major role in successful structurisation, while increasing water content clearly reduced it. Additionally, increasing screw speed positively influenced structure formation, although to a lesser degree, particularly under conditions of high water content. Under high water content, medium screw speed was often preferable. The findings of this study offer important insights into identifying appropriate extrusion conditions for the successful structuring of plant-based meat analogues and highlight the potential of chickpea protein as an alternative to meat.

This study introduces a new, efficient processing technology for separating protein from plant materials, responding to the growing demand for sustainable, cost-effective, and healthy protein alternatives. The separation process is based on a novel dry extrusion which allows for the simultaneous production of both protein-enriched and starch-enriched fractions. The produced protein-enriched granules can be further processed into powder-type ingredient by grinding, but the granules could also be used without grinding similar to conventional textured vegetable protein (TVP). The raw material used in this study was faba bean, a promising yet underutilized source of plant protein. By studying different extrusion conditions in laboratory scale, a protein-rich fraction with high protein content (71–77 % of dry matter) and protein yield (60–85 %) was obtained. The protein fractions had bulk density of 453–523 g/l, water and oil absorption capacity of 2.3–2.5 g/g and 0.94–1.01 g/g, respectively, and hardness of 753–845 g, which align with the properties of commercial TVPs. The starch-rich fraction had cold-water swelling capacity, offering potential in diverse food applications. This new protein separation technology opens new opportunities in the development of sustainable and cost-efficient high-quality plant protein ingredients and alternatives for animal protein-based foods.

This study represents the initial phase of a larger entity evaluating the applicability of plant protein concentrates from pea, faba bean, flaxseed, and hempseed for high-moisture extrusion processing (HMEP), in which chemical composition and functional properties of the ingredients were analysed. Wheat gluten and pea protein isolate were used as benchmark ingredients. The main emphasis was on properties potentially important for creating fibrous structures in HMEP, although the levels of specific chemical compounds and endogenous enzymes that might influence the nutritional quality and flavour of the extrudates were also analysed. Significant variation was observed among the ingredients, with hemp showing the most similarities to protein isolates in terms of high protein content, low dietary fibre content, and low protein extractability. Flax was comparable to hemp but had a lower protein content. The high protein extractability of legume concentrates may be a barrier for their application in HMEP. The presence of elevated levels of phytic acid, raffinose family oligosaccharides, and lipid-modifying enzymes in certain ingredients need mitigation for HMEP. The findings of this study will serve as a foundation for a subsequent investigation, where the performance of these emerging ingredients will be evaluated in actual HMEP trials.

It has been unclear whether varying high moisture extrusion (HME) melt temperatures would differentiate protein digestibility of meat analogs made purely from pea protein isolate (PPI). This study examined whether the in vitro protein digestibility of three meat analogs made from PPI by HME at different temperatures, and a mildly baked PPI sample, differs from that of an animal protein -based counterpart (cooked chicken meat). Additionally, food microstructure, the impact of mastication in place of in vitro oral phase and consequent bolus properties were investigated. The degree of protein hydrolysis (DH %) was assessed after using the standardized, static in vitro upper intestinal digestion model (INFOGEST). The results show that the structure of the PPI analogs extruded at 125 degrees C and 140 degrees C resembled the fibrous structure of chicken meat, whereas the analog extruded at 90 degrees C and the baked sample lacked this meat-like structure. All PPI-based samples had similar DH % to chicken meat. Differences in the measured properties - the shapes, sizes, and numbers of particles - in the masticated PPIbased boluses did not differentiate in vitro protein digestibility. Interestingly, the masticated chicken bolus showed a slightly lower DH % (p=0.05) than chicken subjected to the in vitro oral phase, but this cannot be explained by the measured bolus properties. As a conclusion, despite differences in food microstructure and bolus properties, protein digestibility was similar between cooked chicken and PPI-based meat analogs extruded in temperatures of 90-140 degrees C.

Background: Anti-nutritional factors (ANFs) are a key consideration in the development of novel, sustainable, protein-rich ingredients, as their levels are influenced by both ingredient selection and food processing techniques. Scope and approach: This review, part of the Giant Leaps Horizon Europe-co-funded project, examines the chemical characterization, biological effects, and mechanisms of action of ANFs in a diverse range of alternative protein sources, including legumes, insects, algae, and microbial biomass. This study assesses how traditional and innovative food processing methods, such as fermentation, germination, enzymes, extrusion, affect ANF activity and the nutritional quality of alternative ingredients. Key findings and conclusions: Innovative processing can mitigate the adverse effects of ANFs while preserving or even enhancing the health-promoting properties of foods. However, limitations and inconsistencies in current analytical methods for quantifying ANFs can lead to a misrepresentation of their levels, activity, processing stability, and bioactivity, thereby impacting the nutritional quality of ingredients. Furthermore, the interactions between ANFs and the gut microbiota are considered, particularly on the production of bioactive compounds like short-chain fatty acids. In conclusion, this review underscores the critical need for further research into ANF dynamics and the development of improved analytical methods. Accurate data on ANF levels are crucial for effective safety assessments and for ensuring that alternative protein ingredients are not nutritionally inferior. Ultimately, consumer trust in the safety and nutrition of novel foods is essential for their market acceptance and for advancing the transition towards sustainable food systems that address global environmental issues.

Vending machines typically offer unhealthy snacks but have underutilized potential to provide healthier options on demand. This paper introduces a prototype snack machine with two separate versions of function for producing either a) customized or b) personalized fresh bakery products. The development of the machine and user studies assessing its usability and added value are discussed. In the first study (n = 81), consumers evaluated food customization by adding extra protein or fiber. In the second study (n = 23), food personalization was explored through snack recommendations based on dietary preference data from an integrated personalization platform. Majority of consumers (64-91 %) in both studies had positive attitudes towards the snack machine. Usability ratings for the machine and personalization platform were favorable, with all mean scores significantly above neutral. In the first study, 62 % of participants used the customization options. The primary added value was the ease of snack acquisition compared to participants' current situation. Fresher snacks were perceived as an advantage. In the second study, the personalization function was highly appreciated when 91 % selected the recommended snack, with 87 % finding the recommendations useful. Participants believed the machine would add value by saving time, making snack acquisition easier, offering healthier, higher-quality options, and allowing them to influence type of snacks. These findings support further development of such machines to improve access to fresh and healthy snacks, especially with the new personalization function. Larger studies involving frequent vending machine users are needed to assess commercial potential and broader applicability.

Rapeseed products, such as protein concentrates, hold promise for addressing global protein demands, but their application in food products is limited by their bitter and astringent taste. This study investigates the use of β-glucosidase (BG) and laccase (LAC) enzymatic treatment, individually and combined, to enhance the flavor of rapeseed protein concentrate (RPC). Untargeted metabolomics and sensory analysis reveal that LAC reduces the bitter compound kaempferol 3-O-(2‴-O-sinapoyl-β-D-sophoroside) (K3OSS) as well as a general reduction in other phenolic compounds, which correlates with a significant decrease in bitterness and astringency. In contrast, BG treatment elevates the levels of K3OSS and is accompanied by increased bitterness due to the conversion of precursor compounds to K3OSS. In addition, the synergistic use of both enzymes significantly reduces the concentration of K3OSS, resulting in a lower perception of bitterness. The LC-MS analysis of pure reference compounds treated with LAC and BG confirms that BG-mediated treatment facilitates the breakdown of larger kaempferol glycosides into K3OSS, while LAC treatment promotes polyphenol polymerization. Consequently, LAC treatment seems to be an effective strategy to improve the sensory quality of RPC and make it more suitable for human consumption.

Oleaginous yeasts offer a promising sustainable alternative for producing edible lipids, potentially replacing animal and unsustainable plant fats and oils. In this study, we screened 11 oleaginous yeast species for their lipid profiles and identified Apiotrichum brassicae as the most promising candidate due to its versatility across different growth media. A. brassicae grown in a dairy side stream produced lipids with a composition most similar to cocoa butter, but the stearic acid and linoleic acid content varied greatly when grown on different substrates. We visualised the formation of lipid droplets by digital holotomography. Pilot-scale production was followed by enzymatic and ultrasonic treatment of biomass and heptane/ethanol extraction. The fatty acid (FA) and triacylglycerol (TAG) composition, thermal behaviour, and solid fat content of A. brassicae lipids was compared to benchmarks such as beef fat, cocoa butter, palm oil and milk fat. The FA profile of the A. brassicae lipids shares the same types of fatty acids with cocoa butter, beef fat and palm oil, however concentrations differ resulting in a lower content of saturated FAs. This increased the proportion of unsaturated TAGs, reducing the melting and crystallisation temperatures and the solid fat content. The microbial lipids contained the major TAGs of cocoa butter at similar ratios, resulting in a comparable melting peak and crystallisation peaks similar to the low-melting groups of beef fat and palm oil. Fractionation has the potential to produce beef fat, cocoa butter or palm oil equivalents with desired techno-functional properties. This study demonstrates the potential of A. brassicae to produce tailored lipid profiles for various food applications through strain and process engineering or downstream processing.

This study produced dextran both in situ by fermentation with Weissella confusa A16 and in vitro by isolated W. confusa A16 dextransucrase enzyme, and investigated its effects on the flavor properties of faba bean protein concentrate (FPC) and the corresponding extrudates prepared by high moisture extrusion. Descriptive sensory profiling revealed that the FPC and extrudates had an intense pea odor and flavor, bitter taste, and astringency. Partial least squares regression analysis suggested that the pea flavor was related to the presence of lipid-oxidation products such as hexanal, heptanal, and nonanal, whereas the bitterness and astringency were likely linked to vicine, convicine, condensed tannins, and arginine. Fermentation under optimized conditions resulted in low acid formation and sufficient dextran production (1.2% end-product basis), which was effective in masking pea and bitter off-notes and enhancing pleasant flavors in FPC (sweet and fruity) and extrudates (sweet and umami). The sweetness was related to fructose produced during fermentation, and the fruity odor was linked to the generated isoamyl isovalerate and ethyl acetate. The masking effect on pea and bitter off-notes was further confirmed by adding enzymatically synthesized dextran in FPC (1.2% dextran) and extrudates (1% dextran). Overall, fermentation with W. confusa A16 or addition of the enzymatically produced dextran showed potential for masking off-flavors of faba bean-based ingredients and extruded meat alternatives. Furthermore, the fermentation method was associated with nutritional benefits (reduction of anti-nutritional factors, e.g., condensed tannins and verbascose) and the generation of flavor compounds/precursors (e.g., esters and free amino acids).

This study aimed to evaluate the protein quality of sunflower and pea protein and how processing (fermentation, mild heating, and high moisture extrusion) would affect their digestibility. The protein quality was assessed by the amino acid profile (calculated scores) and in vitro protein digestibility via the degree of protein hydrolysis (DH) using the INFOGEST digestion model. The amino acid profile indicated that sunflower protein was deficient only in lysine (0.62) and leucine (0.86), while pea protein lacked tryptophan (0.83) and sulfur-containing amino acids (0.96). The blend of these materials (1:1) provided a complete amino acid profile reaching a score above 1 for all the essential ones. Fermentation and blending did not have a significant impact of the protein digestibility of the raw materials. The DH of sunflower protein concentrate increased from 33.6 to 46.9% (p <0.05) after mild heat treatment (15% solids, 90(degrees) C, 15 min) and up to 52.8% (p <0.05) after high-moisture extrusion. Differently, the digestibility of pea protein or the blends was not affected by any of the heat treatments. The extruded sunflower protein had a similar DH than the beef reference (47.5%) and mixing beef with plant-based ingredients did not affect the DH. These results highlight the potential of sunflower as good protein source, especially when blended with pea protein or extruded into meat analogs.

Oat is a robust high-protein cereal that grows well in northern regions. Unlike Triticeae cereals, the major storage protein is a globulin, which is higher in essential amino acids than prolamin storage proteins. Oat protein can be tolerated by most celiac individuals, making it an interesting raw material for the ever-expanding gluten-free market. Although it is well-suited in bakery products, the applicability of oat protein is still limited in liquid and semisolid foods because of its low solubility at neutral and mildly acidic conditions. Enzymatic modifications have shown promising results and could be utilized for the expansion of applications in the future. The recent developments in new sustainable technologies for oat fractionation have enabled the production of oat protein ingredients with better functionalities.

Context and Objectives: There is an urgent need for a dietary shift towards an increased consumption of plant protein foods. However, some nutritional and sensory challenges are associated with whole-meal grains and pulses. Fermentation is a promising technology for reducing anti-nutrients, increasing protein digestibility, and reducing starch digestibility in plant-based matrices. This study aimed to evaluate the impact of different fermentation conditions using different bacteria on the nutritional composition of grains and pulses. Methods: Milled wheat, buckwheat, and chickpeas were fermented using different bacteria or combinations of bacteria, i.e., Lactobacillus delbrueckii + Streptococcus thermophilus (Vega), Lacticaseibacillus rhamnosus (Lrham), Leuconostoc pseudomesenteroides (Lpseu), Weissella confusa alone (Wcon) or combined with Lactococcus lactis (Wcon + Lac), or Pediococcus pentosaceus (Wcon + Pen), for 24 or 48 h. Protein hydrolysis and protein and starch digestibility were measured using the O-phtaldialdehyde and Infogest methods, respectively. Starch digestibility was evaluated using the Englyst method. Dietary fibers (DF) were quantified. Results: In buckwheat, all fermentation conditions increased protein hydrolysis, especially Vega. In chickpeas, Lrham and Wcon, alone and in combination, increased protein hydrolysis. In wheat, fermentation did not increase protein hydrolysis. Protein digestibility increased only with Wcon + Pen in buckwheat. For chickpeas and wheat, fermentation did not increase protein hydrolysis, and it was lowest with Lpseu in both cases. Lpseu, Wcon + Lac, and Wcon + Pen led to increased DF in buckwheat, especially soluble high-molecular-weight (HMW) buckwheat (dextran formation). In chickpeas, no increase in DF content was observed due to the hydrolysis of oligosaccharides, but soluble HMW DF increased with Lpseu, Wcon + Lac, and Wcon + Pen (dextran formation). No significant change was observed for wheat DF. The starch hydrolysis index (HI) increased with Lrham over 48 h and Lpseu over 24 h but decreased with Wcon + Lac over 24 h in buckwheat. In chickpeas, HI was reduced in all conditions, the lowest values being with Wcon + Pen and Wcon + Lac. In wheat, HI increased with Lrham over 48 h and decreased with Wcon + Pen. Conclusions: The impact of the fermentation conditions tested differed depending on the grains. Some conditions improved the nutritional characteristics of these grains. These results show promising effects concerning the nutritional quality of grains, which need to be confirmed in finished products.

Little is known about how plant-based products influence satiation compared to corresponding meat-based products. As augmented reality (AR) intensifies sensory experiences, it was hypothesized to improve satiation. This study compared satiation between intake of meatballs and plant-based balls and plant-based balls intensified with AR for visual, olfactory, and haptic sensory properties. Intake order of the meatballs, plant-based balls, and augmented plant-based balls, eaten on separate days, was randomized. Satiation was measured from twenty-eight non-obese adults as ad libitum intake of the balls and extra snacks, and as subjective appetite sensations. Liking and wanting to eat the products were also investigated. There were no differences between the products in satiation. Before tasting the augmented plant-based balls were less liked than the meatballs (p = 0.002) or plant-based balls (p = 0.046), but after eating the first ball or eating the ad libitum number of balls the differences in liking disappeared. Wanting evaluations were similar for each product and decreased during eating (p < 0.001). A group of participants susceptible to AR was found (n = 11), described by decreased intake when augmentation was applied. Among the sub-group, wanting to eat the augmented balls was lower before tasting (p = 0.019) and after eating the first ball (p = 0.002) and appetite was less suppressed after eating the balls ad libitum (p = 0.01), when compared to non-susceptible participants. We conclude that meatballs and plant-based balls were equal in inducing satiation, and multisensory augmentation did not influence satiation. However, the augmentation decreased liking evaluations before tasting. Further studies are needed to explore differences between consumer groups in susceptibility to augmentation.

The common oat (Avena sativa) is a widely-grown cereal grain that has recently garnered attention as a potential source of innovative and alternative foods to replace animal protein. This review article considers the many characteristics of oat-based foods, focusing on oat protein quality and the nutritional effects of oat protein consumption. We first summarize the role of oats as a sustainable alternative protein source before considering dry and wet separation technologies for the enrichment or isolation of oat protein. We then discuss oat protein, including technological properties such as solubility, foaming, emulsification, gelling, and fibrillation capacity, which predict its applicability in diverse liquid and solid foods. We emphasize the potential of oats as a plant-based protein source for the design of innovative dairy and meat alternatives. The review also discusses oat protein quality, particularly its protein digestibility-corrected amino acid score compared to other plant-based protein sources, and insights related to the functionalization oat protein for improved performance. Finally, we consider the ability of oat protein to enable a dietary shift, including knowledge gaps and avenues for future research. This review consolidates existing knowledge on oats and oat protein, providing a comprehensive understanding of technological functionality, applicability in diverse food categories, nutritional potential, protein quality, and associated health benefits.

Pea protein ingredients play key role in formulations of plant-based foods. However, functional properties of pea ingredients are inconsistent depending on extraction process. Protein aggregation occurs simultaneously during protein extraction, thus examining the protein aggregated states as induced by processing is essential for better process design. This study investigated the influence of process-induced protein aggregated states on structure formation upon heating of pea protein ingredients. Combining rheological, spectroscopic, and microscopic techniques, the mechanisms underlining heat-induced structure formation have been unveiled from microscopic to macroscopic scales. The salt-extracted isolate (PPI*) where protein aggregation was minimized, developed mesh-like structure through intermolecular protein-protein interaction upon gelling similar to commercial protein concentrate (PPC). In turn, commercial isolate (PPI) as appeared as microscopic particles, formed gel through accumulation of protein particles with no structure development. The aggregated states of PPI* and PPI seemed to dictate vicilin and legumin purification by means of anion exchange chromatography. Purification process promoted intermolecular protein aggregate structures. However, these purified fractions regardless of parent isolates showed similar structure development as PPC and PPI* during gelling. Monitoring protein aggregation during extraction process can be a key to limit functional property variation in pea protein ingredients.

The current food production system is unsustainable, necessitating a shift towards plant-based diets. Nutritious options fulfill basic needs but may not satisfy hedonic ones. Our novel approach is to promote healthier eating habits without compromising on the pleasantness of eating by using extended reality technologies and multimodal interaction. We present a multisensory augmentation system integrating augmentations in olfaction, touch, and vision. We studied the experience of eating plant-based balls and meatballs. In an experiment with 40 participants, haptic and visual augmentations were found to have significant effects: augmented meatballs and plant-based balls were perceived as bigger and heavier compared to non-augmented versions. However, olfactory augmentation did not produce a similar effect: participants did not notice a stronger aroma with augmented balls compared to non-augmented balls, and the augmented plant-based version had a less appealing scent than its non-augmented counterpart. Moreover, the findings of the study indicate that our multisensory augmentation system had no significant effect on taste perception.