Blue economy developments entail an industrialization of the world's ocean and coastal areas, placing growing pressures on the marine environment and ecosystems. Moreover, the competition for ocean space and resources increases the likelihood for social conflicts. Marine spatial planning has been presented as a tool that can avoid or mitigate conflicts. However, there is a need for a more thorough analysis of the conflicts linked to the blue economy. The objective of this paper is to analyze characteristics of blue economy conflicts and how they are shaped by the institutional context and sustainability discourses. This study also explores perspectives on conflict management and pathways toward sustainable transformations in marine planning. Empirically, we use two case studies of blue growth industries in Norway: (1) offshore wind energy development and (2) offshore aquaculture development. Through these cases, we take a close look at the established principles and procedures which regulate conflicts. Our study shows how current blue economy conflicts are framed and handled through institutionalized practices of conflict management. Our findings are twofold. First, blue economy conflicts are not easily categorized through common conflict typologies (i.e., user-user, user-environment) but increasingly appear to be sustainability conflicts in which all actors use sustainability as a frame of reference for discussing possible and desirable futures. Second, conflicts are not necessarily a negative social process. In fact, conflicts often uncover unsustainable practices and create potential positive pathways for sustainable transformations.

Petroleum activities are associated with high risks. In the 1980s, concerns arose about the environmental impacts of 'normal' petroleum activity. Regular operations go hand-in-hand with emissions to air and discharges to sea. Both have been subject to extensive regulation since the 1990s. This paper analyzes the design and implementation of the Norwegian system that regulates operational discharges to the marine environment. It analyzes the changing relationships among science, politics and the industry and describes how the turn from a prescriptive to a predominantly performance-based approach was fundamental in making progress toward less polluting practices. The article describes how risk regulation was institutionalized and highlights the benefits of involving the industry in the pursuit of environmental protection. It also cautions against a lax attitude toward control and oversight, as complexification of risk objects and the increase of institutional risks can lead to mismatches in risk management.

A metaphor for transformationA marine social science manifesto is inherently an anticipatory exercise; it looks forward to the ocean and coastal challenges that societies are facing, with which marine social scientists are responsible to engage.The concept of Blue Growth that is mentioned in the manifesto (MMSS 1.1.3)and the related Blue Economy concept are also inherently anticipatory; they deal with a desired future for oceans and coasts, which are most explicitly inscribed in national and international ocean strategies (for example, European Commission 2017; FAO 2017).Generally, Blue Growth is a catchphrase that stands for the anticipated sustainable exploitation of ocean and coastal spaces and resources to support economic growth, thereby taking into account ecosystems, biodiversity, and social issues.Obviously, this is an idealized version of growth and sustainability.What makes metaphors like Blue Growth so popular and useful is the fact that they are open and ambiguous.They allow for different interpretations.While some emphasize economic growth, driven by novel technologies, others see Blue Growth as a response to the global challenges of poverty, food security, pollution, and climate change.Therefore, "we must critically engage with the Blue Economy" (MMSS 1.1.3)and study how its developments materialize on the ground, and how these transform needs and societies at all scales.Due to decades of experience of engaging with, and intervening in, fisheries management, marine social sciences are equipped to deal with the challenges that the current and projected industrialization of the oceans bring along (Arbo et al. 2018;

Over the past 50 years, there has been a large-scale expansion and decentralization of higher education in Norway. Today, there are universities throughout the country, and the institutions are expected to serve as drivers for regional development. This chapter explores the many-faceted and symbiotic relationship between university and region. The chapter is based on a comprehensive literature review and the author’s own empirical research. First, it examines the advantages and disadvantages that a region may have from a university. Next, the lens is turned and the question is: What difference can the region make to the university? Six major transformations outside and within the universities currently changing the ways in which universities and regions interact are then discussed. As a result of these changes, universities are facing increasingly complex demands and expectations, and the final part of the paper elucidates some of the dilemmas that this creates for the governance of the institutions.

The oceans have become a juncture of great visions of blue growth as well as strong environmental concern. This paper discusses the essential role of the social sciences as the oceans increasingly emerge as a contested social arena. The marine social sciences have generated a vast knowledge about the development of fisheries and the implications of fisheries policies on coastal communities. We review this heritage and show that it makes the marine social sciences well qualified to address contemporary challenges raised by the increasing ambitions of exploiting and conserving the world's oceans. However, with the current transformation of the oceans as sites of comprehensive industrialization, captured in the concept of blue growth, we argue that marine social scientists need to rethink their research objectives. This requires a reflection on the lessons learned from decades of engagement with fisheries and fisheries policy to understand and intervene in processes and practices of modernization, science-based management, and privatization of resources. We suggest how the marine social sciences can provide new knowledge and actively engage in current developments by studying emergent processes in the marine environment, and the institutions, practices, and discourses that shape them. The social sciences have a responsibility to contribute to growth and conservation issues, and are in the capacity to do so, through formulating governance alternatives, anticipating future trends, imagining desirable futures, and facilitating socially just processes and outcomes.

ABSTRACT This paper explores the changing infrastructure around weather and sea ice information provisioning for Arctic marine areas. Traditionally, the most important providers of operational information on sea ice and weather conditions are the national sea ice and meteorological services. More recently, the community of Arctic information providers has become more heterogeneous with the establishment of numerous collaborative platforms. Three case studies will enhance our understanding of current developments (BarentsWatch, Polar View and Arctic Web). We analyze their organization and funding structures, the types of services they develop, and their target groups. Based upon these cases, we discuss the information infrastructure’s dynamics and underlying drivers of change. Apart from an expected need for customized services due to changing Arctic activity patterns, new initiatives arise due to a combination of (1) progress in information and communication technology, (2) a need to enhance interoperability of data systems, (3) and a desire to improve customized data conveyance from provider to user. The paper concludes with a discussion of the implications of the changing Arctic information infrastructure and defines directions for further research.

The University of Tromsø in Northern Norway merged in 2009 and 2013 with two smaller university colleges in the region. Both mergers were voluntary and initiated by the institutions themselves. In this chapter, we describe and analyse these mergers. We look into their background, the merger processes, their different characteristics, and their outcomes. The chapter also highlights factors that facilitated and complicated the mergers, such as institutional distinctiveness, size, complementarity, and geographical distance. The mergers have created a more hybrid, multi-campus university that is more challenging to manage and coordinate. The processes have been time-consuming and required considerable resources. Nevertheless, the overall conclusion is that these mergers have been beneficial in terms of teaching, research, regional engagement, and the attractiveness of the institutions. A main finding is that institutional context and leadership are of critical importance in higher education mergers.

Coastal states around the world are currently adopting an integrated and ecosystem-based approach to the management of coastal and ocean areas. The main aim is to promote resource use while protecting the integrity of the marine ecosystems. Focus is therefore on the conflict between economic development and conservation. Less attention is paid to the complex uses of the ocean and the conditions for regulating industrial activities and solving multi-use conflicts. This paper discusses principles for dealing with use conflicts in the context of ecosystem-based management. It argues that resolving use conflicts is not only an important issue in its own right, but can also be important for the marine environment and biodiversity. As an illustration, we look at the relationship between the fishing industry and the offshore oil and gas industry in Norway and Vietnam.

"The University and the Economy: Pathways to Growth and Economic Development." Regional Studies, 50(3), pp. 555–556

The missing link in marine ecosystem-based management Peter Arbo, University of TromsA¸ ? The Arctic University of Norway Phạm Thị Thanh Thủy, University of Nha Trang The Arctic region is receiving growing attention. There is increasing interest in exploiting the natural resources and the new sea routes that open as the sea ice is retreating and new technology and infrastructure make the Arctic Ocean more accessible. However, the environmental impacts of a melting Arctic and the consequences of increasing human activity also arouse serious concern. From many quarters, the need for a sustainable ecosystem-based management of the Arctic Ocean is therefore stressed. This paper takes a closer look at the shortcomings of the ecosystem approach. Environmental governance of the Arctic Ocean is not only facing the challenges of creating a common framework across highly different coastal states. The ecosystem approach itself has limitations that need to be addressed. Our contention is that so far the main focus has been on the natural ecosystems while the regulation of industrial activities, which is a prerequisite for balancing ocean uses with the maintenance of ecosystem integrity, has largely been ignored. The paper thus starts with a discussion of what we have called the missing link in ecosystem-based management. We point out that the attempts to establish this new governance framework primarily have been about identifying valuable and vulnerable habitats and species, assessing the cumulative impacts of human activity, and setting up monitoring systems for measuring the health of the ecosystems. The more complicated issues of how to regulate and coordinate expanding industrial activities have received more scant attention. After this, we analyze some of the challenges associated with including the patterns of human activity, regulating industries, and dealing with user conflicts. This is done by a comparative study of the relationship between the offshore oil and gas industry and the seafood industry in Norway and Vietnam. In the case study, we highlight, among other things, the importance of power asymmetries, transparency, differences in the level of development, and mechanisms for institutional coordination. The paper concludes with a discussion of lessons to be learned for integrated marine governance. Keywords: Ecosystem-based management - the Arctic Ocean - regulation of industrial activity ? oil versus fisheries. JEL codes: Z13, Z18.

The missing link in marine ecosystem-based management Peter Arbo, University of TromsA¸ ? The Arctic University of Norway Phạm Thị Thanh Thủy, University of Nha Trang The Arctic region is receiving growing attention. There is increasing interest in exploiting the natural resources and the new sea routes that open as the sea ice is retreating and new technology and infrastructure make the Arctic Ocean more accessible. However, the environmental impacts of a melting Arctic and the consequences of increasing human activity also arouse serious concern. From many quarters, the need for a sustainable ecosystem-based management of the Arctic Ocean is therefore stressed. This paper takes a closer look at the shortcomings of the ecosystem approach. Environmental governance of the Arctic Ocean is not only facing the challenges of creating a common framework across highly different coastal states. The ecosystem approach itself has limitations that need to be addressed. Our contention is that so far the main focus has been on the natural ecosystems while the regulation of industrial activities, which is a prerequisite for balancing ocean uses with the maintenance of ecosystem integrity, has largely been ignored. The paper thus starts with a discussion of what we have called the missing link in ecosystem-based management. We point out that the attempts to establish this new governance framework primarily have been about identifying valuable and vulnerable habitats and species, assessing the cumulative impacts of human activity, and setting up monitoring systems for measuring the health of the ecosystems. The more complicated issues of how to regulate and coordinate expanding industrial activities have received more scant attention. After this, we analyze some of the challenges associated with including the patterns of human activity, regulating industries, and dealing with user conflicts. This is done by a comparative study of the relationship between the offshore oil and gas industry and the seafood industry in Norway and Vietnam. In the case study, we highlight, among other things, the importance of power asymmetries, transparency, differences in the level of development, and mechanisms for institutional coordination. The paper concludes with a discussion of lessons to be learned for integrated marine governance. Keywords: Ecosystem-based management - the Arctic Ocean - regulation of industrial activity ? oil versus fisheries. JEL codes: Z13, Z18.

With the northwards expansion of offshore petroleum activity in Arctic states, there is a concern of the adequacy of emergency response systems. Petroleum activity in these areas is challenging due to harsh weather conditions, darkness, ice, large distances and lack of infrastructure. The politically controversial nature of Arctic oil and gas exploitation makes improvements in oil spill response a necessary condition to receive a license to operate for the oil industry. This paper analyzes the characteristics and development of the Norwegian oil spill response systems in the light of the northwards expansion of the petroleum industry. It addresses the Norwegian case from a pan-Arctic perspective, and looks at the different scales at which emergency response networks are organized. The preparedness theme turns out to be a meeting point for environmental and business interests and provides opportunities for innovation and economic development. Despite ongoing developments and improvements, the paper discusses the challenges ahead in Arctic oil spill preparedness. These should be addressed from a local, state and international level simultaneously, involving public institutions, private companies, and public–private constellations. While implementation takes place at the national and local level, the Arctic Council has a potentially important role in harmonizing standards and regulations across Arctic countries.

The future of the Arctic is an issue of increasing concern. During the last five years, a large number of reports, books, and articles have appeared which directly focus on what happens in the Arctic. This article summarizes the findings of an assessment of more than 50 such studies. It aims to identify the basic assumptions, analytical approaches, and future images that characterize current thinking about the Arctic. The article shows that the studies are diverse in thematic scope and background. Different methodologies are applied to envision the future of the Arctic. The future images range from boom to doom, from escalating conflicts to peaceful collaboration. There is a strong agreement that the Arctic is subject to profound change, driven by developments outside the region. Simultaneously, the studies display the many uncertainties that the future of the Arctic is imbued with. This article does not attempt to sketch an alternative version of the future of the Arctic, but rather to highlight how future studies can stimulate debate, create preparedness for change, offer direction, and inform policy.

The contribution of higher education institutions to regional development is a theme that has attracted growing attention in recent years. Knowledge institutions are increasingly expected not only to conduct education and research, but also to play an active role in the economic, social and cultural development of their regions. The extent to which higher education institutions are able to play this role depends on a number of circumstances: the characteristics of the institutions, the regions in which they are located and the policy frameworks are all significant. At the same time, there are signs of more fundamental conceptual and strategic confusion. The discussions in this domain are frequently characterised by slogans and popular metaphors. This literature review was prepared to support the OECD project entitled 'Supporting the Contribution of Higher Education Institutions to Regional Development', which was conducted by the OECD Programme on Institutional Management in Higher Education (IMHE) in collaboration with the Directorate of Public Governance and Territorial Development. Drawing mainly from a selection of European and North American publications, the report takes an overall view on the development of higher education institutions in the regional context. It focuses on the evolution and discourses of higher education and research, the regional aspects of higher education policies, the various functions and roles that the institutions play, measures taken to link the universities with their regional partners, and the conditions which favour or hamper stronger regional engagement.