Risk-taking behavior varies across different life domains, yet neuroimaging research has primarily focused on financial incentives, thus limiting our understanding of the neural basis for domain-specific risk-taking. This study investigates whether neural correlates of risk-taking differ between financial and social incentive domains using functional magnetic resonance imaging (fMRI). Thirty-nine participants completed an adapted Balloon Analogue Risk Task with financial (monetary rewards) and social (gifts for children) incentive conditions. Behavioral data show that participants demonstrate less risk-seeking behavior in the social compared to financial condition. Neuroimaging results revealed both domain-general and domain-specific components of risk processing. A conjunction analysis of both incentive conditions identified a common neural network across both incentive types, including bilateral striatum, dorsal anterior cingulate cortex, and left insular cortex, supporting theories of domain-general risk processing mechanisms. Contrasting both reward conditions revealed significantly stronger activation in the right inferior parietal lobule during financial compared to social risk-taking, thus indicating a neural substrate for domain-specific risk preferences. These data might bridge the gap between behavioral evidence for domain-specific risk-taking and neuroimaging research, highlighting the importance of considering the type of incentives when studying risk behavior and its neural correlates.

Identifying neural markers might help to investigate the specific effects of stress on risky decision-making and to understand the behavioral interventions for risk adjustment. It is proposed that stress makes decision-making less deliberate. We employ fMRI to investigate this, with stress and post-stress decision-making occurring during the same fMRI session with a minimal stress-to-decision-making latency and concurrent electrodermal activity (EDA) measurement. In this within-subject study (40 participants, 18 males, Mage = 24.6 ± 3.9 years), participants performed the "decision-making under risk" task twice: immediately following stress induction, and after a control condition. The order of the stress and control conditions was counterbalanced. Stress was induced by asking participants to solve mental arithmetic tasks under time pressure while receiving negative feedback. During the decision-making task, participants chose between a safe and a risky option with monetary incentives. Behavioral and EDA (n = 34; due to technical issues) data confirmed that stress induction was successfully implemented. Participants took less risky decisions post-stress than post-control. An fMRI contrast analysis revealed that the right fronto-opercular and the left anterior part of the dorsolateral prefrontal cortex (dlPFC) exhibited significantly lower activation during decisions post-stress than decisions post-control. The results indicate that decisions taken immediately after exposure to the acute stressor are less risky. Furthermore, decisions post-stress are associated with reduced activation in the regions of the dlPFC, possibly leading to lower cognitive control and less deliberate decision-making post-stress. Interventions to increase dlPFC activation might be suitable to improve the decision-making post-stress.

Unhealthy food cues are omnipresent and promote overconsumption. Although childhood obesity rates are increasing, there is no strict regulation of the marketing of unhealthy foods towards children. This is problematic since the human brain, especially areas important for cognitive control, continues to develop into the 30s. It is not known in how far the brain response to unhealthy food cues varies with body mass index (BMI) and age. To investigate this, 168 children (10-17 y) and 182 adults (30-67 y) from the European IDEFICS cohort were scanned with the use of fMRI while viewing pictures of healthy and unhealthy foods. Children exhibited lower activation in the right dorsolateral prefrontal cortex (dlPFC) compared to adults when exposed to unhealthy food cues. Across all age groups, individuals with higher BMI demonstrated reduced activation in the middle cingulum in response to unhealthy food stimuli. Lastly, the relation between BMI and brain activation in response to unhealthy compared with healthy food stimuli varied with development: in children, higher BMI was correlated with decreased activation in right anterior insula and right dlPFC, whereas no such relationship was observed in adults. These findings suggest that children with higher BMI may be particularly vulnerable to unhealthy food cues. In this light, the lack of regulation regarding unhealthy food marketing targeted at children is concerning, especially considering the global increase in obesity rates.

Diet-related chronic illnesses, such as obesity and diabetes, pose major global health challenges. To promote healthier choices, policymakers have introduced nudges like front-of-package labels such as the Nutri-Score, which simplify nutritional information. While previous research has examined the impact of front-of-package labels on product valuation via reward and cognitive control pathways, the neural mechanisms underlying attribute-specific changes in food perception (e.g., healthiness, tastiness) remain unclear. In this study, the impact of a Nutri-Score derived color-coded frame on the decision domains , perceived healthiness, perceived tastiness, and willingness-to-pay as a proxy for subjective value, was investigated. Forty healthy participants (28 females, age: M = 23.8 years, SD = 3.1 years) rated 63 food products in two conditions: without (control) and with (treatment) a color-coded frame while undergoing functional magnetic resonance imaging. The investigation focused on how the color-coded frame alters all three decision domains on a behavioral but also on the neural level. Additionally, the variation in neural and behavioral responses depending on the frame color was investigated. Overall, our results show that the color-coded frame significantly influenced WTP, healthiness, and tastiness ratings, with corresponding increases in neural activation in reward-related (ventromedial prefrontal cortex), cognitive control (dorsolateral prefrontal cortex), and homeostatic (thalamus) regions. Healthiness perception involved regions associated with value-based processing (ventromedial prefrontal cortex), as well as cognitive control (dorsolateral prefrontal cortex) when the color-coded frame was present, whereas tastiness perception engaged a network including the insula, brain regions related to reward valuation (ventromedial prefrontal cortex), and regions associated with cognitive control. These findings suggest that the color-coded frame, used here as a proxy for the Nutri-Score, influences food choices by modulating attribute-specific valuation and interacting with homeostatic mechanisms, rather than directly altering overall value computation. Understanding how external cues integrate with internal physiological signals to guide food choices may inform interventions aimed at improving dietary behavior and public health outcomes.

Background: Impulsivity resulting in unrestrained eating has been implicated as a contributing factor for obesity. Delay discounting (DD) tasks where individuals choose between a smaller immediate reward and a larger delayed reward provide useful data to describe impulsive decision-making and to determine the extent to which delayed rewards are discounted. Objective: To study the association between body mass index(BMI) and delay discounting for food and money in adult women. Methods: We used a DD task with real food rewards to investigate impulsive decision-making as related to BMI in participants who self-identified as women. Participants in group A had a mean BMI of 21.4 (n = 14), and participants in group B had a mean BMI of 32.2 (n = 14). Each group was tested in a hungry state during a single session. We performed fMRI during a DD task requiring participants to choose between a food item (one sandwich) constituting a smaller immediate reward and multiple food items (two, three, or four sandwiches) constituting a series of larger delayed rewards available at different intervals. The steepness of the discounting curve for food was determined from these decisions. Participants then completed a monetary discounting task to facilitate a comparison of the discounting of food and monetary rewards. Results: Participants in group B discounted food rewards more steeply than monetary rewards. Decisions for delayed rewards led to increased activations of brain areas related to executive control on fMRI, such as the head of the caudate nucleus and the anterior cingulate cortex (ACC) in group A, but not group B participants. Conclusion: Our findings suggest that group B had difficulty deciding against the immediate food rewards due to insufficient recruitment of cortical control areas. Therefore, impulsivity is an important target for behavioral interventions in individuals with obesity.

Childhood obesity is a rising problem caused in part by unhealthy food choices. Food choices are based on a neural value signal encoded in the ventromedial prefrontal cortex, and self-control involves modulation of this signal by the dorsolateral prefrontal cortex (dlPFC). We determined the effects of development, body mass (BMI Cole score) and body mass history on the neural correlates of healthy food choice in children. 141 children (aged 10-17y) from Germany, Hungary and Sweden were scanned with fMRI while performing a food choice task. Afterwards health and taste ratings of the foods were collected. In the food choice task children were asked to consider the healthiness or tastiness of the food or to choose naturally. Overall, children made healthier choices when asked to consider healthiness. However, children who had a higher weight gain per year chose less healthy foods when considering healthiness but not when choosing naturally. Pubertal development stage correlated positively while current body mass correlated negatively with dlPFC activation when accepting foods. Pubertal development negatively and current body mass positively influenced the effect of considering healthiness on activation of brain areas involved in salience and motivation. In conclusion, children in earlier stages of pubertal development and children with a higher body weight exhibited less activation in the dlPFC, which has been implicated in self-control during food choice. Furthermore, pubertal development and body mass influenced neural responses to a health cue in areas involved in salience and motivation. Thus, these findings suggest that children in earlier stages of pubertal development, children with a higher body mass gain and children with overweight may possibly be less susceptible to healthy eating interventions that rely on self-control or that highlight health aspects of food.

The sensitivity to subject motion is one of the major challenges in functional MRI (fMRI) studies in which a precise alignment of images from different time points is required to allow reliable quantification of brain activation throughout the scan. Especially the long measurement times and laborious fMRI tasks add to the amount of subject motion found in typical fMRI measurements, even when head restraints are used. In case of moving subjects, prospective motion correction can maintain the relationship between spatial image information and subject anatomy by constantly adapting the image slice positioning to follow the subject in real time. Image-based prospective motion correction is well-established in fMRI studies and typically computes the motion estimates based on a volume-to-volume image registration, resulting in low temporal resolution. This study combines fMRI using simultaneous multislice imaging with multislice-to-volume-based image registration to allow sub-TR motion detection with subsequent real-time adaption of the imaging system. Simultaneous multislice imaging is widely used in fMRI studies and, together with multislice-to-volume-based image registration algorithms, enables computing suitable motion states after only a single readout by registering the simultaneously excited slices to a reference volume acquired at the start of the measurement. The technique is evaluated in three human BOLD fMRI studies (n = 1, 5, and 1) to explore different aspects of the method. It is compared to conventional, volume-tovolume-based prospective motion correction as well as retrospective motion correction methods. Results show a strong reduction in retrospectively computed residual motion parameters of up to 50% when comparing the two prospective motion correction techniques. An analysis of temporal signal-to-noise ratio as well as brain activation results shows high consistency between the results before and after additional retrospective motion correction when using the proposed technique, indicating successful prospective motion correction. The comparison of absolute tSNR values does not show an improvement compared to using retrospective motion correction alone. However, the improved temporal resolution may provide improved tSNR in the presence of more exaggerated intra-volume motion.

OBJECTIVES:Neuroimaging data suggest that pediatric overweight and obesity are associated with morphological alterations in gray matter (GM) brain structures, but previous studies using mainly voxel-based morphometry (VBM) showed inconsistent results. Here, we aimed to examine the relationship between youth obesity and the volume of predefined reward system structures using magnetic resonance (MR) volumetry. We also aimed to complement volumetry with VBM-style analysis.METHODS:Fifty-one Caucasian young subjects (32 females; mean age: 13.8±1.9, range: 10.2-16.5 years) were included. Subjects were selected from a subsample of the I.Family study examined in the Hungarian center. A T1-weighted 1 mm3 isotropic resolution image was acquired. Age- and sex-standardized body mass index (zBMI) was assessed at the day of MRI and ~1.89 years (mean±SD: 689±188 days) before the examination. Obesity related GM alterations were investigated using MR volumetry in five predefined brain structures presumed to play crucial roles in body weight regulation (hippocampus, amygdala, accumbens, caudate, putamen), as well as whole-brain and regional VBM.RESULTS:The volumes of accumbens and amygdala showed significant positive correlations with zBMI, while their GM densities were inversely related to zBMI. Voxel-based GM mass also showed significant negative correlation with zBMI when investigated in the predefined amygdala region, but this relationship was mediated by GM density.CONCLUSIONS:Overweight/obesity related morphometric brain differences already seem to be present in children/adolescents. Our work highlights the disparity between volume and VBM-derived measures and that GM mass (combination of volume and density) is not informative in the context of obesity related volumetric changes. To better characterize the association between childhood obesity and GM morphometry, a combination of volumetric segmentation and VBM methods, as well as future longitudinal studies are necessary. Our results suggest that childhood obesity is associated with enlarged structural volumes, but decreased GM density in the reward system.

Memory performance of an individual (within the age range: 50–55 years old) showing superior memory abilities (protagonist PR) was compared to an age- and education-matched reference group in a historical facts (“famous events”) retrieval task.

Learning new motor skills is important for everyday life and independent living in older age. While studies on motor sequence learning and motor adaptation revealed age differences that are mostly related to frontal decline with increasing age, data for fine finger force modulation are missing. Twelve young (YA, 18-28 years) and twelve middle-aged older (OA, 55-65 years) adults practiced a force modulation task in precision grip while lying in a 3T MR scanner. Participants followed a sine wave between 5 and 25% of their maximum voluntary contraction (MVC) at a frequency of 0.3 Hz. Ten trials of 30 s were performed to examine learning curves and related changes in Blood Oxygen Level Dependent (BOLD) responses were assessed with functional magnetic resonance imaging (fMRI). Training slopes were similar for YA and OA, with only a trend for differences in performance level. Both age groups revealed decreasing activations with practice in frontal and parietal regions as well as in the cerebellum. Particularly, the hippocampus was activated in initial trials, but activity immediately decreased with practice. Increase in activation during practice was found only for YA in occipital cortex, cingulate cortex, and thalamus. After practice, OA revealed a pattern similar to the one that YA showed before practice. Described differences between YA and OA in neural activation related to motor practice may indicate compensational mechanisms in OA to enable similar learning slopes as in YA.

When two tasks are performed simultaneously, performance often declines in one or both tasks. These so-called dual-task costs are more pronounced in old than in young adults. One proposed neurological mechanism of the dual-task costs is that old compared with young adults tend to execute single-tasks with higher brain activation. In the brain regions that are needed for both tasks, the reduced residual capacity may interfere with performance of the dual-task. This competition for shared brain regions has been called structural interference. The purpose of the study was to determine whether structural interference indeed plays a role in the age-related decrease in dual-task performance. Functional magnetic resonance imaging (fMRI) was used to investigate 23 young adults (20-29 years) and 32 old adults (66-89 years) performing a calculation (serial subtraction by seven) and balance-simulation (plantar flexion force control) task separately or simultaneously. Behavioral performance decreased during the dual-task compared with the single-tasks in both age groups, with greater dual-task costs in old compared with young adults. Brain activation was significantly higher in old than young adults during all conditions. Region of interest analyses were performed on brain regions that were active in both tasks. Structural interference was apparent in the right insula, as quantified by an age-related reduction in upregulation of brain activity from single-to dual-task. However, the magnitude of upregulation did not correlate with dual-task costs. Therefore, we conclude that the greater dual-task costs in old adults were probably not due to increased structural interference.

Objective Neurobiological models of depression posit limbic hyperactivity that should normalize after successful treatment. For psychotherapy, though, brain changes in patients with depression show substantial variability. Two critical issues in relevant studies concern the use of unspecific stimulation experiments and relatively short treatment protocols. Therefore changes in brain reactions to individualized stimuli were studied in patients with depression after eight months of psychodynamic psychotherapy. Methods 18 unmedicated patients with recurrent major depressive disorder were confronted with individualized and clinically derived content in a functional MRI experiment before (T1) and after eight months (T2) of psychodynamic therapy. A control group of 17 healthy subjects was also tested twice without intervention. The experimental stimuli were sentences describing each participant's dysfunctional interpersonal relationship patterns derived from clinical interviews based on Operationalized Psychodynamic Diagnostics (OPD). Results At T1 patients showed enhanced activation compared to controls in several limbic and subcortical regions, including amygdala and basal ganglia, when confronted with OPD sentences. At T2 the differences in brain activity between patients and controls were no longer apparent. Concurrently, patients had improved significantly in depression scores. Conclusions Using ecologically valid stimuli, this study supports the model of limbic hyperactivity in depression that normalizes after treatment. Without a control group of untreated patients measured twice, though, changes in patients' brain activity could also be attributed to other factors than psychodynamic therapy.

The combination of the principles of two fast spectroscopic imaging (SI) methods, spectroscopic missing pulse steady-state free precession and echo planar SI (EPSI) is described as an approach toward fast 3D SI. This method, termed missing pulse steady-state free precession echo planar SI, exhibits a considerably reduced minimum total measurement time T(min), allowing a higher temporal resolution, a larger spatial matrix size, and the use of k-space weighted averaging and phase cycling, while maintaining all advantages of the original spectroscopic missing pulse steady-state free precession sequence. The minor signal-to-noise ratio loss caused by using oscillating read gradients can be compensated by applying k-space weighted averaging. The missing pulse steady-state free precession echo planar SI sequence was implemented on a 3 T head scanner, tested on phantoms and applied to healthy volunteers.

Savants and prodigies are individuals with exceptional skills in particular mental domains. In the present study we used functional magnetic resonance imaging to examine neural correlates of calendar calculation in two individuals, a savant with Asperger's disorder and a self-taught mathematical prodigy. If there is a modular neural organization of exceptional performance in a specific mental domain, calendar calculation should be reflected in a considerable overlap in the recruitment of brain circuits across expert individuals. However, considerable individual differences in activation patterns during calendar calculation were noted. The present results indicate that activation patterns produced by complex mental processing, such as calendar calculation, seem to be influenced strongly by learning history and idiosyncratic strategy usage rather than a modular neural organization. Thus, well-known individual differences in complex cognition play a major role even in experts with exceptional abilities in a particular mental domain and should in particular be considered when examining the neural architecture of complex mental processes and skills.

OBJECTIVES:In the search for neurobiological correlates of depression, a major finding is hyperactivity in limbic-paralimbic regions. However, results so far have been inconsistent, and the stimuli used are often unspecific to depression. This study explored hemodynamic responses of the brain in patients with depression while processing individualized and clinically derived stimuli.METHODS:Eighteen unmedicated patients with recurrent major depressive disorder and 17 never-depressed control subjects took part in standardized clinical interviews from which individualized formulations of core interpersonal dysfunction were derived. In the patient group such formulations reflected core themes relating to the onset and maintenance of depression. In controls, formulations reflected a major source of distress. This material was thereafter presented to subjects during functional magnetic resonance imaging (fMRI) assessment.RESULTS:Increased hemodynamic responses in the anterior cingulate cortex, medial frontal gyrus, fusiform gyrus and occipital lobe were observed in both patients and controls when viewing individualized stimuli. Relative to control subjects, patients with depression showed increased hemodynamic responses in limbic-paralimbic and subcortical regions (e.g. amygdala and basal ganglia) but no signal decrease in prefrontal regions.CONCLUSIONS:This study provides the first evidence that individualized stimuli derived from standardized clinical interviewing can lead to hemodynamic responses in regions associated with self-referential and emotional processing in both groups and limbic-paralimbic and subcortical structures in individuals with depression. Although the regions with increased responses in patients have been previously reported, this study enhances the ecological value of fMRI findings by applying stimuli that are of personal relevance to each individual's depression.

Visualizing emotionally loaded pictures intensifies peripheral reflexes toward sudden auditory stimuli, suggesting that the emotional context may potentiate responses elicited by novel events in the acoustic environment. However, psychophysiological results have reported that attentional resources available to sounds become depleted, as attention allocation to emotional pictures increases. These findings have raised the challenging question of whether an emotional context actually enhances or attenuates auditory novelty processing at a central level in the brain. To solve this issue, we used functional magnetic resonance imaging to first identify brain activations induced by novel sounds (NOV) when participants made a color decision on visual stimuli containing both negative (NEG) and neutral (NEU) facial expressions. We then measured modulation of these auditory responses by the emotional load of the task. Contrary to what was assumed, activation induced by NOV in superior temporal gyrus (STG) was enhanced when subjects responded to faces with a NEG emotional expression compared with NEU ones. Accordingly, NOV yielded stronger behavioral disruption on subjects' performance in the NEG context. These results demonstrate that the emotional context modulates the excitability of auditory and possibly multimodal novelty cerebral regions, enhancing acoustic novelty processing in a potentially harming environment.

The inability to imitate gestures is an essential feature of apraxia. However, discrepancies exist between clinical studies in apraxic patients and neuroimaging findings on imitation. We therefore aimed to investigate: (1) which areas are recruited during imitation under conditions similar to clinical tests for apraxic deficits; (2) whether there are common lateralized areas subserving imitation irrespective of the acting limb side; and also (3) whether there are differences between hand and finger gestures. We used fMRI in 12 healthy, right handed subjects to investigate the imitation of four types of variable gestures that were presented by video clips (16 different finger and 16 different hand gestures with either the right or the left arm). The respective control conditions consisted of stereotyped gestures (only two gestures presented in pseudorandom order). Subtraction analysis of each type of gesture imitation (variable>stereotyped) revealed a bilateral activation pattern including the inferior parietal cortex Brodmann Area (BA 40), the superior parietal cortex, the inferior frontal cortex (opercular region), the prefrontal motor cortex, the lateral occipito-temporal junction, and the cerebellum. These results were supported by statistical conjunction of all four subtraction analyses and by the common analysis of all four types of gesture imitation. The direct comparison of the right and left hemispheric activation revealed a lateralization to the left only of the inferior parietal cortex. Comparisons between different types of gesture imitation yielded no significant results. In conclusion, gesture imitation recruits bilateral fronto-parietal regions, with significant lateralization of only one area, namely the left inferior parietal cortex. These in vivo data indicate left inferior parietal dominance for gesture imitation in right handers, confirming lesion-based theories of apraxia.

There is accumulating evidence suggesting that the visual representation of facial affect is closely linked to its motor representation. To examine whether perception of pleasant facial affect involves neural circuitries associated with its production, we performed an fMRI experiment with ‘compressed image acquisition' where subjects smiled and observed movies depicting other people smiling within scan-free time intervals between the acquisition of each image volume. Overlaps between the brain activation during observation and execution of smile expressions were located in the right premotor cortex and pars opercularis of the inferior frontal gyrus, right parietal operculum (SII) and left anterior insula. Observation of smile expressions further yielded signal increases within the posterior superior temporal sulcus (STS), fusiform gyrus and ventral amygdala. The results show that perceiving and expressing pleasant facial affect share a common neural basis in areas concerned with motor as well as somato- and limbic-sensory processing. In concert with temporal regions serving the visual analysis of facial expressive features, a mapping of the observed expressions onto neural circuitries associated with the production of these expressions and its somatosensory consequences could provide a description of what the expression would feel like if produced in the observer. Such a mechanism is suggested to be important for empathic understanding of others' feelings.

Background: Laryngeal dystonia (LD) represents a focal dystonia localized in the larynx. Previous functional imaging work showed a dysorganization of sensorimotor cortices in other focal dystonias, idiopathic torsion dystonia and acquired dystonia. Using functional magnetic resonance imaging (fMRI) we aimed at studying the pattern of sensorimotor activation in patients with LD and its modulation by local treatment with botulinum toxin (BTX).