Breeding efforts have produced highly productive Coffea arabica varieties, but heavy fruit loads often impede vegetative growth of the branches. This leads to alternate fruit-bearing patterns, and premature die-back of fruit-bearing branches. Understanding the relationship between fruit load and vegetative growth is critical to improving sustainable yield. The study aimed to explore how fruit load affects vegetative growth in coffee branches and to assess whether management interventions, such as reducing fruit load, could mitigate negative impacts on yield sustainability. An experimental study was conducted in Costa Rica, tracking the growth of coffee branches at two canopy levels over seven months. Monthly assessments were made with varying fruit load treatments to investigate its influence on vegetative growth. Repeated data analyses were applied to account for temporal (monthly) and spatial (two canopy levels) autocorrelations, enabling a comprehensive understanding of how fruit load affects growth dynamics. Partial removal of fruit nodes significantly increased vegetative growth, leading to improved productivity in the subsequent year. Antedependence models were the models that best captured temporal and spatial correlations for our dataset (data repeated in time and space – corresponding to the two levels observed in the architecture of coffee trees). The findings suggest that regulating fruit load can optimize vegetative growth and stabilize yield in Coffea arabica. This study highlights the tradeoff between fruit load and vegetative growth, showing that effective fruit load management can enhance long-term yield stability in coffee production. Statistical analysis reveals changing correlation structures over time, emphasizing the cumulative effects of treatments on vegetative growth and supporting improved cultivation practices.

Introduction:Breeding programs have developed high-yielding Coffea arabica F1-hybrids as an adaptation against adverse conditions associated with climate change. However, theresponse to drought of coffee F1 hybrids has seldom been assessed. Methods:A trial was established with five C. arabica genotypes (2 pure lines: Catimor and Marsellesa and 3 F1 hybrids: Starmaya, Centroamericano and Mundo Maya) planted under the leguminous tree species Leuceana leucocephala. Coffee growth, yield and physiological responses were assessed under a rain-fed (control: CON) and a rainfall reduction treatment (RR) for 2 years. Results:The RR treatment created a long-term rainfall deficit in a region with suboptimal temperature similar to those predicted by climate change scenarios. Moreover, the RR treatment reduced soil water content by 14% over 2 successive years of production and increased hydric stress of the three F1-hybrids (leaf water potentials averaged -0.8 MPa under RR compared with -0.4 MPa under CON). Under RR, coffee yields were reduced from 16 to 75% compared to CON. Mundo Maya F1 hybrid was the sole high-yielding genotype apable of sustaining its yield under RR conditions. Our results suggested that its significant increase in fine root density (CON = 300 and RR = 910 root.m-2) and its maintenance of photosynthetic rate (2.5 - 3.5 mmol CO2 m-2 s-1) at high evaporative demand might explain why this genotype maintained high yield under RR condition. Discussion:This work highlights a possible drought tolerance mechanism in fruit bearing adult coffee trees where the plant fine root number increases to intake more water in order to preserve turgor and sustainphotosynthesis at high ETo and therefore conserves high yield in dry conditions.

Annual global coffee consumption growth (1-2%) has been largely met (> 50%) mainly by Brazil and Vietnam through highinput monocrop system adoption. Smallholders account for > 80% of global producers and > 60% of global supply despite limited farm sizes (< 2 ha), yields, and input usage. Production concentration in areas with high-yielding systems has fulfilled global demand growth while keeping coffee prices low. However, climate shocks demonstrate the vulnerability of all supply models, strengthening the voice of those advocating more resilient and diversified systems. We review current agroforestry knowledge to identify key trade-offs and synergies between sustainability/performance indicators (i.e. economic, environmental, and social) and explore pathways for a more sustainable coffee future with three examples representative of global coffee production system diversity.

Yields of most tropical crops are strongly reduced by drought, but this may be partially mitigated by irrigation and potassium application. Understanding the mechanisms regulating these relationships is essential to select crop varieties reaching high yield under environmental stress. We conducted a 2-year field experiment (2020–2022) to investigate the effects of seasonal irrigation, potassium application and their interaction on cocoa reproduction and yield, using six genotypes in Côte d'Ivoire. Potassium application increased pod number and size, contributing significantly to annual yield, but this effect was conditional to soil water availability. Similarly, irrigation when combined with potassium application almost doubled yield from 1.5 to 3.0 kg/tree (2000 kg ha−1 yr−1 to 4000 kg ha−1 yr−1, respectively). This yield effect was mostly the result of positive effects of irrigation on pod number per tree and, to a lesser extent, due to its positive effects on bean number per pod and bean mass. Irrigation effects on pod number were associated with an increased number of cherelles whereas the larger pod number during the major harvest compared to the minor harvest was associated with lower cherelle wilt. We also found a more than two-fold genotypic difference in yield, with the genotypes CI02 and CI03 and to a lesser extent hybrid M having lower yields having lower yields than the genotype CI01. These genotypic yield differences were associated with differences in both cherelle wilt and initial cherelle production rates. The effects of withholding irrigation on yield were significantly dependent on the genotype, reflecting a potential genotypic difference in drought tolerance. The development of climate adaptive strategies for cocoa production requires integrating effects of irrigation, potassium application and cocoa genotype on yields. Future research should focus on unraveling the underlying genotypic and ecophysiological mechanisms of the results presented here, and identifying other potential approaches to enhance the resilience of cocoa to increasing water deficit under climate change.

In West Africa, long dry spells are likely to become more frequent and intense as a result of global climate variability, which may significantly impact cocoa tree performance (i.e. morphology, physiology, growth and production), and asks for improved water management. Potassium (K) application may mitigate drought impacts on cocoa, yet knowledge on how shorter, drier wet seasons affect cocoa and on the potential mitigating effect of K application is limited. This study investigated the effects of reduced water availability via shelters and K application on cocoa leaf traits, root growth, reproductive dynamics and yield of cocoa trees in a 6-year old plantation. Two soil moisture levels and two K treatments were considered: a control (no shelter) and sheltered (67 % rainfall reduction) treatment, either with or without 200 kg ha(-) 1 K application. Results indicated rain sheltering significantly decreased soil moisture by 9 %, root interceptions by 50 %, root mass density by 50 %, stomatal conductance (Gs) by 60 %, flush intensity by 70 %, leaf greenness 48 % and leaf size by 68 %. While individual pod mass remained unchanged, flower intensity, healthy cherelles, pod, and bean numbers per tree dropped, leading to a dry bean yield reduction from 2100 kg ha(-1) to 1450 kg ha(-1) (31 %). The beneficial impact of K application was primarily noticeable under control conditions, where it increased Gs, leaf size and greenness. Also, about 35 % of precipitation is intercepted by and directly evaporates from the cocoa canopy and thus never reaches the soil. Future agro-meteorological crop models need to take this into account. Overall, results indicate a strong negative effect of reducing water availability during the wet season on leaf physiology, pod production and cocoa yield. Yields were mostly reduced because of a lower number of pods and much less by an effect on individual pod size. However, K application may not mitigate drought effects and sustaining cocoa yield would require integrated water management.

Cocoa trees are highly sensitive to water stress but these negative effects may differ genetically and may be mitigated by potassium (K) application. We studied these effects on six-year-old adult trees, five genotypes produced by somatic-embryogenesis, and one by cross pollination (Hybrid), grown under sub-optimal field conditions in central Cote d'Ivoire. Trees were subjected to two soil water treatments (with or without dry season irrigation) and two K fertilization levels (with and without K). We assessed interactive effects of treatments on several leaf and crown traits: sap flux density (SF), leaf water potential (LWP), stomatal conductance (Gs), leaf size (LS), specific leaf area (SLA), leaf water content (LWC), leaf area index (LAI), light interception, litterfall and a visual index of whole-plant water stress (WSI). Mixed-effects model results revealed that withholding irrigation negatively affected SF, LWP, Gs, LS, SLA, LAI and light capture and increased WSI scores. Potassium application did not significantly mitigate the negative effects of withholding irrigation. A significant effect of genotype was observed for most of the monitored leaf physiological, morphological and crown traits. Furthermore, we found significant, positive interactions between genotype and irrigation for SF, LWP, leaf area, LS, SLA, LWC, LAI and intercepted light, suggesting that the differences in observed responses to drought conditions are genotypespecific. These results provide insights into the acclimation strategies of cocoa and genetic variation therein, and can be used to select drought-tolerant genotypes.

Pests and diseases are major determinants of cocoa yield, but continuous synthetic chemical control of cocoa pests contributes to environmental pollution and high production costs. As an alternative, we assessed the influence of eight commonly retained forest tree species on mirid and black pod disease infestation, compared to unshaded portions in 10 cocoa fields in the Western region of Ghana. The influence of tree species, on-farm temperature, rainfall, and relative air humidity was assessed on mirid population densities on cocoa trees, and mirid and black pod disease infested pods from May 2018 to December 2020. Shade tree species had significant effects on mirid densities and resulting pod damages, with highest mirid occurrence in Triplochiton scleroxylon K. Schum (0.51 +/- 0.12 mirids tree-1 yr- 1) and lowest occurrence in Khaya ivorensis A. Chem (0.21 +/- 0.07 mirids tree-1 yr- 1), Cedrela odorata L. (0.22 +/- 0.09 mirids tree-1 yr- 1) and Milicia excelsa (Welw.) C. Berg. (0.24 +/- 0.09 mirids tree-1 yr- 1) plots, compared to the unshaded control plots (0.48 +/- 0.12 mirids tree-1 yr- 1). Black pod disease (caused by Phytophthora spp.) infection was significantly different among species with highest pod damage observed around Cola nitida Schott and Endl. and least in unshaded areas. The occurrence of black pod disease varied with seasons and correlated with monthly rainfall and humidity, while mirid infestation correlated with monthly temperature. The diameter of shade trees and the density of cocoa trees influenced both mirid infestation and black pod disease infection. Hence, careful selection of shade tree species appears to be an important strategy to enhance integrated pest management (IPM) in cocoa systems.

BACKGROUND:The effects of the environment and genotype in the coffee bean chemical composition were studied using nine trials covering an altitudinal gradient [600-1100 m above sea level (a.s.l.)] with three genotypes of Coffea arabica in the northwest mountainous region of Vietnam. The impacts of the climatic conditions on bean physical characteristics and chemical composition were assessed. RESULTS:We showed that the environment had a significant effect on the bean density and on all bean chemical compounds. The environment effect was stronger than the genotype and genotype-environment interaction effects for cafestol, kahweol, arachidic (C20:0), behenic acid (C22:0), 2,3-butanediol, 2-methyl-2-buten-1-ol, benzaldehyde, benzene ethanol, butyrolactone, decane, dodecane, ethanol, pentanoic acid, and phenylacetaldehyde bean content. A 2 °C increase in temperature had more influence on bean chemical compounds than a 100 mm increase in soil water content. Temperature was positively correlated with lipids and volatile compounds. With an innovative method using iterative moving averages, we showed that correlation of temperature, vapour pressure deficit (VPD) and rainfall with lipids and volatiles was higher between the 10th and 20th weeks after flowering highlighting this period as crucial for the synthesis of these chemicals. Genotype specific responses were evidenced and could be considered in future breeding programmes to maintain coffee beverage quality in the midst of climate change. CONCLUSION:This first study of the effect of the genotype-environment interactions on chemical compounds enhances our understanding of the sensitivity of coffee quality to genotype environment interactions during bean development. This work addresses the growing concern of the effect of climate change on speciality crops and more specifically coffee. © 2023 The Authors. Journal of The Science of Food and Agriculture published by John Wiley & Sons Ltd on behalf of Society of Chemical Industry.

AbstractCocoa (Theobroma cacao L.) is an important cash crop in many tropical countries, particularly in West Africa. Heat and drought are both known to affect the physiology of cocoa plants through reduced rates of photosynthesis and transpiration, as well as changed physiological processes such as the functions of photosystems, chlorophyll synthesis, stomatal conductance and expression of heat-shock proteins. This in turn leads to decreased yields and increased risks of mortality under severe heat and drought. To help cocoa plants adapt to climate change, the literature suggests agroforestry as a potential farm management practice. It has been argued that the lack of tree cover in cocoa cultivation systems exposes the crop to heat and direct solar radiation, thus increasing evapotranspiration and the risk of drought. Drawing on data generated from two on-field studies, this chapter assesses the shade effect on cocoa’s physiological responses to drought and heat stress to determine whether shade would be beneficial under climate change scenarios. We conclude that shade improves the physiology of cocoa, but that this may not be sufficient to compensate for the negative effects of high temperatures and severe drought exacerbated by climate change in sub-optimal conditions.

Climate models predict decreasing precipitation and increasing air temperature, causing concern for the future of cocoa in the major producing regions worldwide. It has been suggested that shade could alleviate stress by reducing radiation intensity and conserving soil moisture, but few on-farm cocoa studies are testing this hy-pothesis. Here, for 33 months, we subjected twelve-year cocoa plants in Ghana to three levels of rainwater suppression (full rainwater, 1/3 rainwater suppression and 2/3 rainwater suppression) under full sun or 40 % uniform shade in a split plot design, monitoring soil moisture, physiological parameters, growth, and yield. Volumetric soil moisture (ϴw) contents in the treatments ranged between 0.20 and 0.45 m3m � 3 and increased under shade. Rainwater suppression decreased leaf water potentials (ѱw), reaching-1.5 MPa in full sun con-ditions indicating severe drought. Stomatal conductance (gs) was decreased under the full sun but was not affected by rainwater suppression, illustrating the limited control of water loss in cocoa plants. Although pre-dawn chlorophyll fluorescence (Fv/Fm) indicated photoinhibition, rates of photosynthesis (Pn) were highest in full sun. On the other hand, litter fall was highest in the full sun and under water stress, while diameter growth and carbon accumulation increased in the shade but was negatively affected by rainwater suppression. Abortion of fruits and damage to pods were high under shade, but dry bean yield was higher compared to under the full sun. The absence of interactions between shade treatments and rainwater suppression suggests that shade may improve the performance of cocoa, but not sufficiently to counteract the negative effects of water stress under field conditions.

AbstractClimate change is threatening cocoa production in Ghana, the world’s second largest cocoa exporter. Yet, as we have shown in this book, the impacts of climate change must be understood in the context of the multiple socioeconomic and biophysical pressures facing cocoa farmers, including the conversion of farms for other land uses, increasing hired labor costs as well as pests and diseases. This final chapter summarizes the book’s overall findings on cocoa agroforestry as climate change adaption and points to ways forward in terms of policy, practice and research. Our findings suggest that a nuanced view of farmers, agroecosystems and sites is necessary and emphasize the need to study shade tree species and species diversity, in addition to shade levels, to optimize the sustainability of cocoa farming. We further suggest that it may not be possible to sustainably grow cocoa in marginal regions of the cocoa belt, where yields are lower and where agroforestry may be unable to mitigate the negative impacts of the adverse climate. Finally, we point to the importance of considering rights and access to trees, land, extension services and resources, and call for more multidisciplinary research on differently situated farmers’ opportunities and needs.

AbstractClimate change is predicted to significantly reduce areas suitable for the cultivation of cocoa, an important cash crop providing a livelihood to over six million smallholders in the humid tropics. Cocoa agroforestry shows potential to increase climate resilience while providing more stable incomes, enhancing biodiversity, supporting healthy ecosystems and reducing the pace at which farms expand into forested areas. Based on the multidisciplinary ‘Climate Smart Cocoa Systems for Ghana’ research project, this book investigates the case of the biophysical and socioeconomic sustainability of cocoa agroforestry in Ghana, the second largest producer of cocoa in the world. After a brief introduction to the research project, this introductory chapter reviews the literature on the links between climate change, farming and agroforestry, thereby situating the study within a wider context. It then presents an in-depth analysis of historical Ghanaian cocoa yields and climate data at both the national and regional levels to establish a foundation for understanding the new climate risks faced by cocoa farmers. The chapter concludes by providing an overview of the chapters that follow and introducing the overall argument that agroforestry can only successfully address climate change impacts on cocoa farming if location-specific biophysical and socioeconomic factors are considered.

Background: Worldwide coffee production, especially Arabica coffee, is threatened by climatic change, plants diseases and vulnerability of smallholders. Meanwhile, consumers’ demand for socially and environmentally sustainable products is steadily increasing, driving the engagement of stakeholders in agro-ecological and social initiatives. Here we present a new organizational model, the “Coffee agroforestry business-driven cluster” (CaFC), which aims at preserving ecosystems while offering producers a fair income. Based on an original local micro value-chain dedicated to sustainable production of high-quality Arabica coffee under agroforestry systems, the CaFC model stands out by addressing the issues around plantation renovation, a crucial process that requires considerable investments from producers. Methods: Based on a pilot project in Nicaragua, we illustrate how the operational principles of CaFC can be applied in a real setting. Using data shared by key stakeholders involved in the project, we assess the profitability of the CaFC model by comparing different scenarios and applying sensitivity analysis. We then reflect on the reproducibility of the model in other contexts, building on lessons learned from ongoing implementations in Vietnam and Cameroon. Results: For producers renovating their plantations, the CaFC model consistently outperforms other scenarios, offering high quality premiums coupled with capacity building, access to highly productive varieties that perform well under agroforestry systems and adapted credit with favourable repayment schemes. Implementation in Vietnam and Cameroon show that the model can be successfully replicated with some adaptation to local contexts. These cases also highlight the importance of mutual interests, trust and communication in enabling collaboration between stakeholders. Conclusions: The CaFC model has great potential for positive environmental and economic impact and offers strong incentives for stakeholders involved in its resulting micro value-chain. The concept was initially developed in Nicaragua for coffee but could also be adapted in other countries or even to other commodities such as cocoa.

AbstractShade trees are important components of cocoa-agroforestry systems because they influence yields, soil fertility and the occurrence of pests and diseases and may support adaptation to climate change. Based on a review of the existing literature and on primary data from field experiments, this chapter reports on the species-specific effects of shade trees in relation to the management of insect pests, black pod diseases and their impacts on cocoa yield. Shade tree species in cocoa systems impact soil available phosphorus differently and shade tree species such as Spanish cedar (Cedrela odorata), limba (Terminalia superba) and mahogany (Khaya ivorensis) increase cocoa yield compared with cocoa systems without shade trees. The architecture of shade tree species may influence below-canopy temperatures and relative humidity, which potentially affect pests such as mirids and black pod disease infections and ultimately cocoa yield. As farmers have local knowledge of and preferences for certain shade tree species, strengthening the combination of scientific and local knowledge can prove a powerful tool for the improved management of shade tree species, as well as cocoa pests and diseases.

CONTEXT: Cocoa agroforestry systems differ in the diversity of shade tree species composition. Though cocoa benefits from shade, there is a lack of species-specific information on shade trees that enhance soil fertility and yield. OBJECTIVE: We examined how soil characteristics and cocoa yield were affected by eight commonly retained forest tree species, compared with unshaded control plots over a 3-year period. METHODS: Using 74 circular plots from 10 cocoa farms in the Western region of Ghana, we sampled soils from two random points within each plot. Soil nutrients at the beginning and end of the study were analyzed, and yield was expressed as number of harvested pods and dry weight of beans per hectare. RESULTS AND CONCLUSIONS: Levels of soil K and Ca were below recommended values. Although soil available phosphorus (P) was higher in control plots than under shade trees, yield around shade trees were higher than on unshaded plots. Cocoa yield differences between shade tree species and control plots were significant only in the major crop season, but not in the minor crop season. Cocoa yields under Cedrela odorata, Khaya ivorensis, Terminalia superba and Milicia excelsa were significantly higher than on control plots. Hence, the inclusion of specific shade tree species in cocoa agroforestry systems is important to maintain high yields in cocoa systems with low inputs. SIGNIFICANCE: To our knowledge, this study presents one of the first attempt to assess the impacts of specific shade tree species on soil characteristics and cocoa yield.

Abstract Selection of shade tree species for agroforestry systems must take the complexity of these systems into account. Tree species selection should maximize the provision of ecosystem services while minimizing disservices. Selected species must be adapted to local agroecological conditions and cater to farmers' needs, while considering their preferences and constraints. The ShadeTreeAdvice methodology was developed to support said selection process using farmers' local ecological knowledge. It provides the steps to rapidly identify tree species and evaluate their impacts on a range of locally important ecosystem services. Results are uploaded to a decision support tool to tailor tree species recommendations to individual farmers' needs (www.shadetreeadvice.org). During the 5 year timeframe between 2016 and 2020, eight studies following this methodology were conducted in various coffee and cocoa growing regions across Africa, Asia and Central America. This article looks back at these studies to synthesize their findings and evaluate the methodology. We identified similarities in the use of tree species across different study areas, notably regarding leguminous and fruit tree species. We showed that the method was efficient to evaluate tree species' impacts on soil and climate regulation, crop production, and economic benefits. It was less efficient for evaluating impacts related to incidence of pests and diseases, often associated with knowledge gaps. The method also successfully allowed investigating the links between LEK and socio‐economic groups or environmental factors. Furthermore, we suggest a series of improvements in the methodology for future studies. These improvements include (i) broadening the scope of studies beyond tree species provision of ecosystem services to include tree species impact on farming practices; (ii) allowing the comparison of tree performances in agroforestry systems versus in full sun; (iii) providing a clear pathway for validation of the results; (iv) using tree species' functional traits to generalize the results. Read the free Plain Language Summary for this article on the Journal blog.

Coffee is deemed to be a high-risk crop in light of upcoming climate changes. Agroforestry practices have been proposed as a nature-based strategy for coffee farmers to mitigate and adapt to future climates. However, with agroforestry systems comes shade, a highly contentious factor for coffee production in terms of potential yield reduction, as well as additional management needs and interactions between shade trees and pest and disease. In this review, we summarize recent research relating to the effects of shade on (i) farmers' use and perceptions, (ii) the coffee microenvironment, (iii) pest and disease incidence, (iv) carbon assimilation and phenology of coffee plants, (v) coffee quality attributes (evaluated by coffee bean size, biochemical compounds, and cup quality tests), (vi) breeding of new Arabica coffee F1 hybrids and Robusta clones for future agroforestry systems, and (vii) coffee production under climate change. Through this work, we begin to decipher whether shaded systems are a feasible strategy to improve the coffee crop sustainability in anticipation of challenging climate conditions. Further research is proposed for developing new coffee varieties adapted to agroforestry systems (exhibiting traits suitable for climate stressors), refining extension tools by selecting locally-adapted shade trees species and developing policy and economic incentives enabling the adoption of sustainable agroforestry practices.

Increases in temperature and more erratic rainfall patterns due to climate change threaten the already fragile livelihood of smallholder coffee farmers. Shaded coffee in agroforestry systems appear to be a good alternative to protect coffee from extreme temperatures while providing additional ecosystem services, such as extra food and soil protection. However, excessive shade might reduce coffee yields. This study analyzed the effect of shade cover (shade type represented by cropping system (Coffee-Open (CO), Coffee-Banana (CB), Coffee-shade tree (CT))), and shade intensity (represented by leaf area index of the shade cover) along an altitude gradient on: (i) microclimate, (ii) soil water content and (iii) coffee reproductive and vegetative growth. Data was collected during two coffee fruit development cycles (2015 and 2016) in smallholder coffee farms (n = 27) on the west slopes of Mt. Elgon Uganda. Shade cover buffered coffee trees from microclimate extremes (maximum temperature (-3 C) and temperature amplitude -3 & nbsp;C). Fruit set decreased with shade cover increases. Leaf set was shown to be the most important variable for vegetative and reproductive growth along several production cycles, and fruit drop was determined mainly by fruit set. Intermediated shade cover (LAI ~ 1 m(2) m(-2)), as occurred in coffee intercropped with bananas, showed an optimal balance between microclimate regulations, fruit set, and fruit drop, and provided staple food and an extra source of income.

Shade is one of the recommended management solutions to mitigate the effects of heat stress, which is a major challenge for cocoa production globally. Nevertheless, there are limited studies to verify this hypothesis. Here, we evaluate the effects of heat and shade on cocoa physiology using experimental plots with six-month old potted seedlings in a randomized complete block design. Infrared heaters were applied for one month to increase leaf temperatures by an average of 5-7 degrees C (heat treatment) compared with no heat (unheated treatments), and shaded plants were placed under a shade net removing 60% of the light compared with no shade (sun treatments). Plants under heat treatments in sun and in shade showed severe reduction in photosynthesis. Measurements of chlorophyll fluorescence and photosynthetic light response curves indicated that heat caused damages at photosystem II and additionally resulted in lower rates of maximal photosynthesis. Temperature optima for photosynthesis were at 31-33 degrees C with only small differences between treatments, and as light saturation was reached at low PAR levels of 325 - 380 mu mol m(-2) s(-1) in shade and 427 - 521 mu mol m(-2) s(-1) in sun, ambient rates of photosynthesis were comparable between sun and shade treatments. Heat treatments resulted in decreased concentrations of chlorophyll and changed pigment composition, reduced specific leaf areas, and plant biomass. While shade may benefit cocoa seedlings, our results indicate that the positive effects may not be sufficient to counteract the negative effects of increased temperatures on cocoa physiology.

Background: Worldwide coffee production, especially Arabica coffee, is threatened by climatic change, plants diseases and vulnerability of smallholders. Meanwhile, consumers’ demand for socially and environmentally sustainable products is steadily increasing, driving the engagement of stakeholders in agro-ecological and social initiatives. Here we present a new organizational model, the “Coffee agroforestry business-driven cluster” (CaFC), which aims at preserving ecosystems while offering producers a fair income. Based on an original local micro value-chain dedicated to sustainable production of high-quality Arabica coffee under agroforestry systems, the CaFC model stands out by addressing the issues around plantation renovation, a crucial process that requires considerable investments from producers. Methods: Based on a pilot project in Nicaragua, we illustrate how the operational principles of CaFC can be applied in a real setting. Using data shared by key stakeholders involved in the project, we assess the profitability of the CaFC model by comparing different scenarios and applying sensitivity analysis. We then reflect on the reproducibility of the model in other contexts, building on lessons learned from ongoing implementations in Vietnam and Cameroon. Results: For producers renovating their plantations, the CaFC model consistently outperforms other scenarios, offering high quality premiums coupled with capacity building, access to highly productive varieties that perform well under agroforestry systems and adapted credit with favourable repayment schemes. Implementation in Vietnam and Cameroon show that the model can be successfully replicated with some adaptation to local contexts. These cases also highlight the importance of mutual interests, trust and communication in enabling collaboration between stakeholders. Conclusions: The CaFC model has great potential for positive environmental and economic impact and offers strong incentives for stakeholders involved in its resulting micro value-chain. The concept was initially developed in Nicaragua for coffee but could also be adapted in other countries or even to other commodities such as cocoa.