Trichoderma spp. is widely recognized and employed as effective biocontrol agents, providing a natural approach to managing plant diseases. These fungi, commonly found in soil, utilize multiple mechanisms to suppress plant pathogens, making them important tools in sustainable agriculture. However, the biocontrol efficacy of Trichoderma spp. is influenced by several environmental factors that impact their growth, sporulation and antagonistic activity against phytopathogens. This research investigates how abiotic factors such as pH, temperature, water activity (aw) and electrical conductivity (EC) affect the efficacy of Trichoderma spp. as biocontrol agents against plant pathogens. Controlled laboratory tests were evaluated for conidial production, growth rates and morphological changes under varying environmental conditions. The results indicated that the ideal water activity (aw 0.985) and temperature (25 °C) considerably increased conidial production and biomass growth. A pH level of 6.5 and an EC of 12.92 dS/m were identified as ideal conditions for optimal growth and sporulation. These results underscore the importance of environmental factors in improving the effectiveness of Trichoderma spp., offering actionable suggestions to enhance its use as a biocontrol agent across diverse farming systems, while also recognizing the importance of these factors in improving the large-scale production of T. harzianum for both agricultural and industrial purposes, especially in biocontrol application.

The highest incidence of Plutella xylostella was observed on the cabbage crop at the 5th SMW (2.99 larvae plant-1) and the lowest at the 49th SMW (0.90 larvae plant-1). The maximum incidence of Crocidolomia binotalis was recorded at 5th SMW (3.51 larvae plant-1) and minimum was at 49th SMW (0.40 larvae plant-1). The maximum incidence of Spodoptera litura was at the 1st SMW (4.10 larvae plant-1), and minimum was at the 49th SMW (0.60 larvae plant-1). The peak population of aphid was observed at 3rd SMW (36.30 aphid leaf-1) and lowest was observed at 50th SMW (1.40 aphid leaf-1). The populations of diamondback moth, tobacco caterpillar, leaf webber, and aphid exhibited a significant positive correlation with relative humidity and significant negative correlation with maximum temperature. Leaf Webber’s population also showed a negative significant correlation with minimum temperatures.

Bee pollen has diverse applications beyond human consumption and bee supplement. Its economic advantages may encourage beekeepers to adopt frequent pollen trapping, yet its impacts on brood rearing remains poorly understood. This study aimed to standardize pollen trapping using front-mounted traps with 50% efficiency on Apis mellifera L. colonies. The effects of different trapping frequencies on pollen load collection, pollen foraging, and brood production were evaluated in 12-frame colonies across two apiaries in Hisar and Kaul, Haryana, India during the mustard flowering seasons of 2017 and 2018. Five experimental groups each with three colonies were established in both apiaries and mounted with traps based on pollen trapping frequencies viz. daily, alternate day, third day, weekly and control (no trapping) with respective duration of 42, 21, 14, 7 and 0 days. Daily trapping yielded maximum pollen load collection (0.56 Kg/colony at Hisar and 1.89 Kg/ colony at Kaul) but reduced brood area by 27.3% at Hisar and retarded brood expansion at Kaul. Conversely, weekly-trapped and control colonies, exhibited larger brood area, indicating a strong negative correlation between trapping frequency and brood area. Mustard season at Kaul exhibited greater pollen diversity (0.70-1.42) and higher protein content (24.3-30.2%). In both locations, pollen foraging peaked between 10:00 AM and 2:00 PM. Therefore, adopting intermittent pollen trapping or restricting daily trapping to peak foraging hours (10:00 AM- 2:00 PM) could be viable strategies to balance pollen collection with colony health.

Background: Bee colonies are fed with pollen supplemented diets to sustain them during unfavourable conditions. These pollen loads are collected from foraging bees using pollen traps mounted on colonies. However, intensive trapping may interfere with honey production. Therefore, a need was felt to regulate frequency of trapping to ensure sufficient honey storage in the colonies. Methods: In this field based study, performed under mustard flowering seasons of 2016-17 and 2017-18, traps were mounted on colonies with varying frequencies namely, daily, alternate day, third day, weekly and control under two different mustard flowering locations in Haryana. Honey area and proportion of incoming pollen foragers were recorded from tested colonies. Result: Daily trapping triggered 29% bees for pollen foraging that contributed to considerable reduction in the honey area (-103 cm2). In contrast, colonies with weekly trapping regimes exhibited large honey area (4054 cm2). Among the locations, large honey area was stored in the weekly trapping colonies at Kaul, Haryana than Hisar, Haryana.

Intensive surveys conducted in 0-3 km radius of the experimental apiary during the dearth periods (June-October) in 2017 and 2018 unraveled 71 plant species belonging to 31 families as crucial flora for Apis mellifera L. foragers at Kaul, Kaithal, Haryana. Bee flora comprised of 23 weeds (32.4%), 16 ornamentals (22.5%), 12 plantation crops/trees (16.9%), 7 vegetable crops (9.9%), 5 fruit crops (7.1%), 3 forage crops (4.2%), 2 each oilseed and cereal crops (2.8% each) and 1 leguminous pulse crop (1.4%). Among the families, Fabaceae consisted of maximum floral resources (10, 14.1%) followed by Asteraceae (7, 9.9%) and Cucurbitaceae (5, 7.0%). Bee floral calendar was also prepared along with the description of reward potential to A. mellifera foragers in terms of pollen and nectar.

The research work was carried out on paddy variety PB1509 in Department of Seed Science and Technology, CCS HAU Hisar during 2021 to assess the efficacy of various fungicides in improving seed quality and seed health. The results revealed that maximum germination (91.11%) was recorded in the seeds treated with Pyraclostrobin 10% CS followed by the seeds treated with Picoxystrobin 6.78% +Tricylcazole 20.33% SC (90.67%) with single dose. With double dose, maximum and significantly high germination was recorded in seeds treated with Picoxystrobin 6.78%+Tricylcazole 20.33% SC treated seeds (88.33%) followed by the seeds treated with Azoxystrobin18.2% + Difenoconazole 11.4% SC (88.17%) in comparison to control seeds (84.67%). In single dose, poor vigour index-I (1749) was observed in Picoxystrobin 12%+Propiconazole 7% SC treated paddy seeds followed by Propiconazole 13.9%+ Difenconazole 13.9% EC (1789) treated seeds in comparison to control (2254). In double dose, detrimental effect on vigour index-I was recorded in majority of fungicidal treatments in comparison to control (2254). Maximum infection (25.00%) was observed in untreated seeds while no infection was recorded in the seeds treated with double dose of amistar top, nativo, galileo sensa and systiva. The seed infection reduced significantly after two weeks in both single and double dose. Double dose significantly reduced the infection from 9.05 to 5.95%. The fungus found on rotten and ungerminated paddy seeds could not be identified. The frequency of unidentified fungus was maximum (0.23) in control (untreated seeds) followed by cabrio top (0.11) and minimum (0.03) was found in nativo, galileo sensa and systiva treated seeds. Doubling the dose reduces the frequency of infection significantly from 0.09 to 0.07. It is concluded from the study that seed treatment with Pyraclostrobin 10% CS or Picoxystrobin 6.78%+Tricylcazole 20.33% SC with single dose is beneficial for seed quality enhancement while seed treatment with Trifloxystrobin 25%+Tebuconazole 50% WG (native) or Picoxystrobin 6.78%+Tricylcazole 20.33% SC (galileo sense) or Fluxapyroxad 33.3% FS (systiva) are beneficial for controlling the seed borne fungi which is considered as effective disease management strategy.

Aims: An investigation was undertaken to identify the effect of hydropriming on germination, seedling growth and vigour in fresh, one year and two year old seeds of bottle gourd (Pusa Naveen variety and HBGH-35 hybrid). Study Design: The present experiment was laid in Complete Randomized Design (CRD). Place and Duration of Study: The study was carried out in the laboratories of the Department of Seed Science & Technology, Chaudhary Charan Singh Haryana Agricultural University, Hisar during the year 2020. Methodology: Seeds of both genotypes were soaked in distilled water for 48 hours in half volume of water with respect to seed weight (w:v) at a constant temperature of 25°C. Then after, germination test was performed using ‘Between Paper’ method to assess the effect of hydropriming on germination and seedling vigour related parameters. Results: It was observed that hydropriming treatment significantly enhanced the germination and vigour of fresh and aged seeds of bottle gourd. Fresh seed lot recorded maximum germination (88.00%), shoot length (21.32 cm), root length (16.89 cm), seedling length (38.21 cm) and seedling dry weight (59.30 mg), vigour index I (3363) and vigour index II (5219) as compared to one year and two year old seed. However, effect of hydropriming was more pronounced on aged seeds as compared to fresh seeds. There was an increase in germination percentage in one year old seed to an extent of 9.69%, in two year old seed to an extent of 7.36%, whereas in fresh seeds it was only 2.30% as a result of hydropriming treatment. Conclusion: It was concluded that one year old seed lot responded better to hydropriming treatment than two year old and fresh seed lot.

Constant temperatures influencing the biological traits of Helicoverpa armigera (Hübner) is widely documented. However, information was lacking on impact of alternating temperatures on population growth of H. armigera on tomato crop. The impact of 6 different alternating temperatures (ATs) viz. 25:10, 25:13, 25:16, 30:10, 30:13, 30:16°C were studied on its life table parameters on tomato crop inside the climatic chamber. Only 7–13% eggs of H. armigera developed successfully into their respective adults under treated ATs. The immature development period and mean generation time shortened by 36.7 and 35.7%, respectively with enhancement in AT from 25:10–30:16°C. ATs viz. 25:13, 25:16 and 30:10°C favoured the higher oviposition (554.83–625 eggs/female) of female H. armigera. Fitting closely to observed values, the total fecundity (TF) model predicted 21.0°C as the favourable temperature for maximum fecundity (591.3 eggs /female). Under 30:10°C, H. armigera attained maximum intrinsic (0.05635 day−1) and finite rate of increase (1.0579 day−1) on tomato crop. The methodology involving law of effective accumulated temperatures estimated that H. armigera may complete 2 generations in a tomato growing season. These results can assist in planning sustainable pest management modules in preventing potential pest outbreaks and associated economic losses.

Helicoverpa armigera (Hübner) is a destructive polyphagous insect pest of worldwide importance. In Indian subcontinent and Southern Europe, the pest causes serious damage to tomato crop. High migrating ability of H. armigera is expected to threaten more area cultivated under this crop. It is therefore important to understand the development of this pest on tomato to predict its phenology well in advance in order to manage it efficiently. Keeping that in view, the development and mortality of immature stages of H. armigera were studied inside plant growth chamber with six different alternating temperatures (Max/Min °C) viz. 25:10, 25:13, 25:16, 30:10, 30:13, and 30:16 °C with 14:10 h photoperiod. Development of all immature stages quickened with increasing alternating temperatures. Tomato-fed larval stage suffered heavy mortality which ranged from 69 to 85% and completed development in 47.4–31.6 days with rising alternating temperatures. The development data of H. armigera immature stages were fitted into various models like simple linear model, Ikemoto–Takai model and Kontodimas nonlinear model. Among linear models, Ikemoto–Takai model estimated lower threshold temperatures of egg, larva, and pupa viz. 9.9, 7.8, and 12.3 °C, respectively. Daily mean temperatures falling below these threshold values likely to be fatal for immature stages of H. armigera. Degree-day estimates were 37.4, 508.4, and 154.6°D for egg, larva, and pupa, respectively. Both linear models were close enough in predicting immature stage duration of H. armigera. The Kontodimas nonlinear model also predicted 32.5 and 37.8 °C as maximum threshold temperature for egg and larva, respectively. The predicted fatal temperatures for immature stages of H. armigera through various models in this study will help to take timely and need-based control measures.

Poplar is an important tree of agroforestry systems.Among several insect pests Clostera spp.pose serious threat to the poplar trees as it defoliates their leaves completely.Hisar, Haryana witnessed the outbreak of this pest during September-October months in the year 2016.Keeping that in view, biology of this insect was studied during October 2016.The total duration of immature stage was found to be 24.1 days.The fecundity of adult females recorded to be 186 eggs per female.Full grown final instar larva consumed 2.99 g.The life history information would be useful in efficient management of this pest.

One of the major challenges to humankind is threat to food security due to emerging and invasive pests. Increased global trade in agriculture has increased the chances of the introduction of exotic pests. Papaya mealybug (Paracoccus marginatus Williams and Granara de Willink), cotton mealybug Phenacoccus solenopsis (Tinsley), coconut mite (Aceria guerreronis Keifer), serpentine leaf miner (Liriomyza trifolii Burgess) and tomato leaf miner [Tuta absoluta (Meyrick)] are some examples. Insect pests on an average are estimated to cause 15–20% yield losses in principal major food and cash crops. Pest whose status has been changing from minor to major or secondary to primary pest is termed as an emerging pest. Bemisia tabaci (Gennadius) on cotton, Helicoverpa armigera (Hubner) on vegetables and pulses, Spodoptera litura (F.) on vegetables, cotton and oilseeds, Pieris brassicae L. on crucifers, L. trifolii on vegetables and Atherigonia spp. on spring maize, have become increasingly severe during last decade. Increasing incidence of aphid complex, comprising of Sitobion avenae (F.), Rhopalosiphum maidis (Fitch) and Schizaphis graminum (Rondani) is now observed on wheat, barley and oat. Mites of the Eriophyiidae and Tetranychidae family have emerged as major pests of bean, brinjal, cotton, cucurbits, okra, apple, ber, citrus and mango in Northern India. Maruca vitrata Geyer has emerged as a predominant pest in recent years in all pigeonpea and cowpea growing areas of India causing up to 42% damage in cowpea in Andhra Pradesh. The invasive pest, coconut eriopyhid mite, Aceria gurrreronis Keiffer caused 64.16–89.42% nut infestation in at Thane, Maharashtra in 2014. During 2015–16 an epidemic of whitefly was noticed during August in the cotton growing areas of Haryana and Punjab (Kranthi, 2015). In this review the situation of emerging insect pests of crops is discussed along with the probable reasons for their changing pest status.

Aim : The following study was undertaken to record the trend of approximate digestibility and efficiency of conversion of ingested food into body substance during larval stage of tomato fruit borer, Helicoverpa armigera (Hubner) due to rise in alternating temperatures. Methodology : The experiment was conducted under digitally controlled walk-in-type plant growth chamber. The impact of six alternating temperatures (Max : Min) viz. 25:10, 25:13, 25:16, 30:10, 30:13 and 30:16 degrees C were studied on approximate digestibility and efficiency of conversion of ingested food into body substance of three final larval instars of H. armigera on tomato crop. Various observations like food consumption, weight of feces and larval insect were recorded daily till pre-pupal stage and recorded data were used in mathematical equations to calculate approximate digestibility and efficiency of conversion of ingested food into body substance. Results : Both, approximate digestibility and efficiency of conversion of ingested food into body substance values responded with respect to change in alternating temperatures. Approximate digestibility values followed an increasing trend from 8.675 to 31.432 % with increase in temperature from 25:10 to 25:16 degrees C. The increasing trend of approximate digestibility continued with rise in temperature from 30:10 to 30:16 degrees C. However, efficiency of conversion of ingested food into body substance values declined gradually from 14.993 to 9.371 % with rise in temperature from 25:10 to 30:16 degrees C. Interpretation : The study suggest that in the event of rising temperature under climate change, H. armigera would better digest the tomato fruit but would be less efficient to convert ingested tomato fruit into body substance.

Insect pests are the prime threats to production and productivity of greenhouse crops worldwide. Presence of warm, humid conditions and abundant food under protected structures provide a stable environment and habitat for pest development. Often, the natural enemies that keep pests under control outside are lacking under protected environment. For these reasons, pest situations often become alarming in the indoor environment than outdoors. The damage inflicted by arthropod pests on greenhouse crops varies from pest to pest and season to season. The level of damage that can be tolerated is greatly dependent on the type of crop as well. Integrated pest management (IPM) is a systematic approach to manage insect-pests that combines a range of techniques and strategies to either reduce pest populations or decrease their economic impact. It is a site-specific strategy for managing pests that relies on correct pest identification and understanding the pest biology. With a long-term perspective it is easier to visualize that an investment in IPM can surely pay for itself in a higher-quality crop and a cleaner environment in greenhouse crop production.

Successful integrated pest management (IPM) control programmes depend on many factors which include host–parasitoid ratios, starting densities, timings of parasitoid releases, dosages and timings of insecticide applications and levels of host-feeding and parasitism. In devising strategies for the control of pest populations, pest management specialists have attempted to make use of mathematical theories of population dynamics to aid in their task. Manetsch and Park defined model as an abstract representation of a real-world system that behaves like the real-world system in certain respects. Modeling in pest management not only helps in forecasting of pest populations but it also give answers to problems like strategy selection, tactics selection and state selection. One such model is FRUTFLY, which has been successful in predicting the fruit fly emergence. Likewise, weather variables also play significant role in initiating the plant diseases. Extensive studies involving favourable weather variables with respect to wheat rust, bacterial blight of rice, etc. have helped researchers to anticipate the future plant disease problems.

Pests cause widespread losses even if control measures are administered. They are hurting the prospects of many agricultural produce exporting countries. On numerous occasions developing countries have faced embargo owing to the presence of pests in the produce. Area wide pest management (AWPM) is clearly one of the strategies to mitigate such pests which pose threat to the people, crops, livestock and foreign exchange of the countries. AWPM is the long term planned campaign against pest population over a large geographical area. It not only involve traditional approaches like cultural and biological control but also advanced molecular based novel tactics like sterile insect technique (SIT), release of insect carrying dominant lethal (RIDL), Cytoplasmic incompatibility (CI) through Wolbachia. However, apart from these tactics some countries have made pest free areas (PFA) where, stricter norms and laws have been implemented to curb the movement of pest to these areas. AWPM is clearly; one of the methods which comply with sanitary and phyto-sanitary (SPS) measures of World Trade Organisation (WTO) and it has the potential to help producers, traders, packers and exporters, etc around the world.

Rising temperatures under changing climatic conditions results in the increase in food intake by the insect pests. The present studies on effect of different alternating temperatures on food consumption and nutritional indices of Helicoverpa armigera (Hübner) on tomato crop were conducted during 2013-14. The total food consumption by H. armigera larvae during total (third to fifth instar) larval duration increased from 2.457±0.048 g/larvae at 25:10oC to 3.545±0.021 g/larva at 30:16oC. This suggests that with increase in temperature there is increase in food consumption by H. armigera larvae. The share of food consumption by fifth instar larvae was e” 80 per cent of total food consumption by H. armigera larvae in all the treatments.Nutritional indices for total larval duration of H. armigera such as consumption Index (CI) rose from 0.929±0.020 at 25:10oC to 1.495±0.014 at 30:16oC, The relative growth rate (RGR) of total larval period varied from 0.139±0.002 at 25:10oC to 0.174±0.003 at 30:10oC. The rise in alternating temperature from 25:10oC to 30:10oC resulted in increased RGR of H. armigera larvae.