Perennial crops are increasingly converted to annual cropping systems as Conservation Reserve Program (CRP) contracts expire. We compared crop yields and net returns across 2013–2018 for no‐till pulse crop‐wheat ( Triticum aestivum L.) (P‐W) systems, preceded either by 10 yr of P‐W or 10 yr of perennial cropping (P‐W Per ) at Bozeman, MT. The perennial mixed species planting, dominated by alfalfa ( Medicago sativa L.), was split into unharvested and annually harvested treatments 2005–2012. The 2013–2018 experimental design included both systems replicated as main plots, with 50 and 100% recommended available N rates as subplots. Precipitation was below average during three of the first four growing seasons, followed by two wetter than average years. The P‐W Per system had generally lower soil moisture and equal or greater nitrogen supply than the P‐W. ‘Haying off’ (reduced harvest index) occurred in wheat grown 2 and 4 yr after conversion from perennial to annual cropping, which reduced grain yield, and increased grain protein. Crop yield losses in the P‐W Per system averaged 0.84 Mg ha –1 (28%) over 4 yr and two N rates. After adjusting grain prices using historical discounts and premiums for test weight and protein content at Montana grain elevators, P‐W Per net returns were reduced for four consecutive years in three economic scenarios, and for 2 yr in a fourth scenario by a 4‐yr cumulative average of (USD) $731 ha –1 (45%). We conclude annual crop yield and economic returns were compromised for 4 yr following 10 yr of an alfalfa‐dominated perennial cropping system. Core Ideas Ten years of perennial forage generally reduced economic returns for 4 yr of subsequent annual cropping by an average of 45%. Grain yield was more negatively affected by perennial cropping than protein yield. Long‐term assessment may be required to capture economic benefits of improved soil quality.

Turf diseases, insects, and small animals often destroy modest amounts of turf cover and leave the area vulnerable to weeds. Thin turf and bare spots are the most general cause of weeds. Weeds are encouraged by any use pattern or practice that reduces turf cover, such as heavy traffic, misuse of herbicidal or fertility chemicals, improper fertilization, mowing below optimum cutting height, and removing too much growth at one time. Many of these reflect unfavorably on man's complicity in turf weed problems. Weed seeds may be spread by wind, water, turfgrass materials, turfgrass equipment, man, birds, and various other creatures. A comprehensive look at turf weed control methods would include the use of weed-free seedbeds, weed-free propagation materials, prevention of weed germination or emergence with pre-emergence herbicides, reducing weed growth and development with management or herbicides, regular mowing to destroy weeds intolerant of mowing, preventing seed set, and destroying the established plants.

The advent of near infrared (NIR) on-combine sensors gives growers the opportunity to measure the grain protein concentration of wheat (Triticum aestivum L.) during harvest. A study consisting of three sequential experiments (laboratory bench, combine test stand, and field) was conducted to evaluate the performance of an in-line, NIR reflectance spectrometer, referred to as the ProSpectra Grain Analyzer, possessing a factory calibration model. In the laboratory bench experiment, the instrument was mounted to a circulating impeller apparatus designed to simulate a moving stream of grain. The ProSpectra performed well on a validation set of 231 grain samples of soft white winter wheat and explained a high level of protein variability (R-2 = 0.91, SEP = 3.1 g kg(-1)) with a slope near unity. In the second experiment, the sensor was installed on a combine test stand constructed from the cross and exit augers, and clean grain elevator of a combine, to create the grain flow conditions found on a combine. Predicted protein was highly correlated (R-2 = 0.93, SEP = 4.5 g kg(-1)) with reference protein of nine large (14-kg) wheat samples. During the third experiment, the instrument was placed on the exit auger of a Case IH 1470 combine for the harvest of a 17-ha winter wheat field. Prospectra protein predictions correlated well with reference protein measurements (R-2 = 0.94, SEP = 3.1 g kg(-1)). This study demonstrated the feasibility of using in-line NIR reflectance spectroscopy to rapidly (0.5 Hz measurement rate) and accurately (SEP < 5.0 g kg(-1)) measure wheat protein in a moving grain stream.

Annual legumes permit intensified cropping in no‐till systems in the drought‐prone northern Great Plains. Our objectives were to compare cropping sequence effects of pea ( Pisum sativum L.) with fallow, mustard ( Sinapis alba L.), and wheat ( Triticum aestivum L.), and to measure the effects of pea harvest timing and shoot biomass presence on soil water use and N contribution, and yield and grain quality of subsequent wheat. Pea, mustard, wheat, and fallow preceded spring wheat at three sites in Montana. In the first year, two harvest timings (anthesis and maturity) were included and managed for presence or absence of crop shoot biomass. In the second year, a wheat test crop was grown at four N fertilizer rates. Regardless of management, pea used equal or less soil water, contributed equal or greater soil N, and had equal or greater positive impact on subsequent wheat growth than mustard or wheat. Compared with maturity, midseason harvest timing of pea increased soil N (30–39 kg NO 3 –N ha −1 ) and soil water (19–39 mm) available in the spring to the subsequent wheat test crop at two of three sites. Under severe drought, midseason harvest of pea increased wheat yield 50% and critically increased grain density compared with the mature pea harvest. At the N‐limited site, midseason harvest of pea increased wheat yield 14% and grain protein 9% compared with mature pea harvest. Pea shoot biomass presence did not affect soil water or N, or growth of a subsequent wheat crop.

Accurate estimates of straw production for spring wheat ( Triticum aestivum L.) are important in the Great Plains for conservation planning, nutrient cycling, and fertilizer recommendations. Frequently, these estimates are based on grain yield and the assumption of a constant ratio between straw and grain. This approach may not always be accurate because straw/grain ratios can vary greatly across environments and genotypes. Spring wheat studies were conducted to contrast straw/grain ratios over diverse water and N environments and to determine if plant height and grain protein at maturity, in addition to grain yield, would significantly improve predictions of straw production. A 3‐yr field study consisting of four cultivars, three water regimes, and a wide range of N levels served as a database for this analysis. Straw/grain ratios ranged from 0.91 to 2.37 and were affected by water, N, and cultivar selection. Extended periods of water stress during grain fill and/or vegetative growth and improved N fertility generally resulted in wider ratios. Stability of straw/grain ratios over the diverse environments improved as cultivar height decreased. Straw yield models that considered only grain yield provided a modest fit to the data ( R 2 = 0.66, SE = 701 kg ha −1 ). Prediction models that included terms for plant height and plant N status (straw N or grain protein) in addition to grain yield provided a considerably better fit to the experimental data ( R 2 = 0.88, SE = 425). Observations from validation data sets confirmed that inclusion of plant height (two of two data sets) and grain protein (one of two data sets) improved accuracy of straw yield predictions.

Pulse crop production is expanding in semiarid regions of the Northern Plains, and depends on successful biological N2-fixation. Inoculation failure, resulting in plant N deficiency and economic crop loss, might be alleviated by remedial N fertilizer application. The experiment was conducted using no-till management at two dryland sites in Montana in 1999 and 2000, where field pea and chickpea were grown in cereal stubble. Shoot biomass, shoot biomass N concentration, seed yield and seed N concentration were measured for uninoculated and inoculated controls and compared with remedial fertilizer N applied 0, 4, 6, and 8 wk after seeding. Spectral reflectance was compared for the inoculated and uninoculated controls. For field pea and chickpea, the critical period for fertilizer N application to prevent yield loss occurred within 6 wk of seeding (P ≤ 0.05). Logistic regression models derived from spectral reflectance had overall accuracies of 84 and 60% for detecting uninoculated control treatments in field pea and chickpea, respectively. The field pea model had a high degree of accuracy 6 wk after seeding, indicating it was capable of assisting a decision to apply remedial N fertilizer. Spectral reflectance provided a window of opportunity of 1 wk to apply remedial N fertilizer to attain full yield potential. Key words: Chickpea, field pea, inoculant failure, nitrogen, spectral reflectance

The impact of interactions between water and N stress on 13C isotopic discrimination (Δ) is not well understood. The objective of this study was to determine the impact of N on Δ in wheat (Triticum aestivum L.) grown under low, moderate, and high water stress. In a field study located near Havre, Montana, USA (48° 30′ N lat. and 109° 22′ W long.), wheat grown under three different water stress environments (low, moderate, and high) was fertilized with three different N rates (none, moderate, and high). Each treatment was replicated four times. The grain N fertilizer use efficiency increased as water stress decreased. A differential response of Δ to N was observed. In general, if plants were grown under high water stress and N increased yield, then adding N to N‐deficient plants reduced Δ (−0.01‰ for every kg of N added); and if plants were grown under low water stress and N increased yield, then adding N had little or no impact on Δ. The break point between N impacting or not impacting Δ was ∼17.45‰. Under non‐N limiting (moderate and high N) conditions the equation relating Δ to yield was, yield (kg ha−1) = −11000 + 884 Δ, r = 0.92**. Wheat grown under N‐deficient conditions (0N treatment) did not fit this curve. By accounting for the impact of water and N stress on Δ, this variation could be explained. Results from this study suggest that Δ can be used to characterize N and water stress at different landscape positions in watershed studies.

A leaf spot complex of ‘WB881’ durum (Triticum turgidum L. var. durum), similar to symptoms observed in winter wheat (Triticum aestivum L), was greatly suppressed by Cl at a field site in Montana. The objectives were to determine: (i) if this leaf spot phenomenon could be reproduced under hydroponics; (ii) the effect of Cl on leaf spot severity, water use, and plant growth; (iii) whether Br could substitute for Cl; and (iv) whether other durum cultivars were susceptible to leaf spotting under Cl deficiency. WB881 durum was grown at four halide (Cl and Br) levels of 1.5, 3.0, 6.0, and 30.0 mmole pot−1, plus a control. Three cultivars (WB881, Kyle, and Monroe) were grown at Cl levels of 0, 1.2, and 24.0 mmole pot−1 Withholding Cl from starter and refill solutions reproduced leaf spotting in WB881 similar to symptoms observed in the field. Leaf spotting was suppressed by Cl up to the 30.0 mmole pot−1 dose, but was aggravated by Br. Plant water use increased with Cl up to the 30.0 mmole pot−1 dose and was related to the beneficial effect of Cl in suppressing tissue necrosis. Leaf spot severity was closely related to shoot Cl concentration. Tissue necrosis was minor if Cl concentration was ≥1.0 g kg−1, but increased exponentially below this level. Withholding Cl from the hydroponic cultures reduced shoot and grain yield 58.2 and 98.9%, respectively. Bromide did not substitute for Cl by improving shoot and grain yield. Monroe was less susceptible to this Cl‐deficient leaf spot than was WB881 or Kyle. Cultivar susceptibility or tolerance to leaf spotting could not be explained by differences in Cl partitioning within the plant (e.g., roots, shoots, leaves).

Wheat growers in Montana work under a quality payment system that offers financial incentives to maximize their crop's protein levels. Because it is essential to protein production, controlling soil N levels is critical to the success of the state's wheat producers. The objective of this research was to develop a cost-effective method for variable rate fertilization using information from on-the-go sensing of yield and sampling of grain. We used grain protein levels and yield sensing to derive detailed maps of N fertility requirements. We were able to estimate the amount of N removed by the crop and that required for raising protein to a target level of 15%. A variable-rate N application map was derived by summing the mapped values of N-removed and N-required in a GIS.

Previous research in the Pacific Northwest and Great Plains has provided evidence that wheat (Triticum aestivum L.) yields are often improved by Cl- fertilization. Published reports on critical tissue concentrations and Cl- requirements for wheat are few in number. Our objectives were to define a critical plant Cl- concentration !head emergence) for maximum yield, develop a Cl- fertilizer recommendation, and determine the effect of Cl- fertilizer on grain protein. Thirty-two field experiments (18 winter and 14 spring wheat) were conducted in Montana between 1988 and 1995. Experiments included comparisons with multiple cultivars and Cl- rates (0-90 kg ha(-1)). Relative yield vs. plant Cl- concentration relationships Here assessed from 219 cultivar x experiment episodes. Three zones of Cl- status were identified: (i) a deficiency zone, plant Cl- <1.0 g kg(-1), where significant (P < 0.10) field responses to applied Cl- occurred in 59 of 86 episodes (69%); (ii) an adequate Cl- status zone, plant Cl- greater than or equal to 4.0 g kg(-1), where yield responses occurred in only 2 of 44 episodes (<5%); and (iii) a critical range between these two zones, where responses were observed in 25 of 89 episodes (28%). Regression of plant Cl- concentration on soil (0-60 cm) plus fertilizer Cl- revealed that deficient, critical range, and adequate Cl- zones mere associated with <7.5, 7.5 to 32, and greater than or equal to 33 kg Cl- ha(-1), respectively. The proposed guideline for wheat is to add sufficient Cl- to reach the upper end of the critical range (4.0 g kg(-1) plant Cl-). This recommendation ensures adequate Cl- nutrition for maximum field and kernel weight, although at some sites a slight reduction in grain protein (0.5%) may result.

A leaf spot complex that results in tissue necrosis and whose origin is unknown frequently damages selected winter wheat (Triticum aestivum L.) cultivars in Montana and neighboring regions. This study was undertaken to determine leaf spot origin (physiologic or pathogenic), cultivar susceptibility, and response to Cl nutrition. Winter wheat studies at seven sites (1993-1995) compared cultivars (Redwin, Tiber, CDC Kestrel, Manning, Stephens, Sierra, and Promontory), propiconazole (1-[[2-(2,4-dichlorophenyl)-4-propyl-1,3-dioxolan-2-yl]methyl]-1H-1,2,4-triazole) fungicide treatments, and multiple Cl fertilizer rates (0-90 kg ha(-1)). Chlorotic or necrotic lesions developed at all sites, but not all cultivars were affected similarly. CDC Kestrel was the most susceptible cultivar. Flag leaf spot severity (portion of tissue area affected) was as great as 40% in this cultivar. Redwin, Sierra, and Promontory were the next most susceptible cultivars, followed by Stephens and Manning. Tiber, a variant line row selection of Redwin, was leaf spot tolerant. Multiple propiconazole applications had no effect on leaf spot severity, and infectious organism(s) could not be isolated from symptomatic tissue. Thus, leaf spot origin was probably physiologic and not infectious. Chloride fertilization (11-22 kg ha (-1)) greatly suppressed or eliminated leaf spotting, and increased yield in one or more cultivars at six of seven sites (up to 998 kg ha(-1)). Physiologic leaf spot occurrence and severity in affected cultivars was linked to inadequate CI nutrition, and a possible osmotic imbalance in leaf mesophyll cells. Damage was usually minor when whole-plant CI at head emergence was greater than or equal to 1.0 g kg(-1). Leaf spot damage increased exponentially as plant Cl dropped below this concentration. The name Cl-deficient leaf spot syndrome is proposed to describe this phenomenon in wheat.

Available water (precipitation plus stored soil water) is the principal factor that determines wheat (Triticum aestivum L.) yield potential and response to N in the Northern Great Plains. Field studies were conducted in 1987 and 1988 to determine the interactive effect of water and available N on 'Redwin' and 'Centurk' winter wheat yield. Seven fertilizer N levels and a line-source sprinkler system created a wide range of N and simulated growing-season precipitation (SGSP) regimes on a Yegen sandy loam (fine-loamy, mixed, Typic Argiboroll). Wheat yield-N-SGSP functions revealed that yield and response to water were much greater in 1987 than 1988, when return from N was maximized (maximum economic yield or MEY). At 100, 200, and 300 mm SGSP, predicted MEY in 1987 averaged 2350, 4019, and 5434 kg ha-1, respectively. In 1988, MEY was 9, 17, and 24% lower, respectively. High available N reduced yield from the maximum across all SGSP regimes in 1988, but not in 1987. High temperatures during grain fill in 1988 (23.1-degrees-C, 4.7 degrees-C warmer than 1987), were likely the reason for differing yield-N-SGSP relations. Though Centurk yielded more than Redwin for most SGSP conditions, the N required for MEY or optimum N level (ONL) was not greatly affected by cultivar. Due to less favorable growing conditions, the ONL was approximately 27% lower in 1988 than 1987. An acceptable fertilizer N strategy might be to raise the ONL level to 100 kg ha at 100 mm growing-season precipitation, then adjust N upward 1 kg ha-1 for every 3 mm rise in available water.

Researchers need a practical, compact, and versatile continuous flow and constantly renewed nutrient culture system. Therefore, such a system for plant growth in nutrient culture was developed and tested. Numerous individual culture jars can be supported by a single solution reservoir and distributor jar. Solution flow throughout the system is automatic with only the reservoir unit needing manual replacement or resupply. The level of solution in culture jars can be fixed easily and maintained rellably by adjustment of the air inlet tube in the reservoir jar. Each culture jar can be regulated for drainage and aeration. A compact aeration system adapts to the entire unit.

AbstractSaline cooling tower water (CTW) from the Northern States Power coal‐fired plant in Sherburne County, MN was used to irrigate a Hubbard loamy sand (Udorthentic Haploboroll). The objectives of this study were to determine the changes in soil solution salinity, to measure salt accumulations in the soil profile (0‐ to 240‐cm), and to assess the impact of CTW on crop production.In a 3‐yr field study, CTW (2.2 dS m−1) was applied at two rates to alfalfa (Medicago sativa L.), corn (Zea mays L.), and fallow areas. Analysis of the soil water for electrical conductivity (ECsw) at 75 cm indicated that an increase in salt concentration occurred over the growing season. Maximum seasonal ECsw at 75 cm in the cropped areas (3.0–4.0 dS m−1) were higher than in the fallow areas (2.0–2.5 dS m−1). Rainfall between the growing seasons, however, was adequate to leach the upper 75 cm of this coarse‐textured soil and prevent a stepwise buildup of salts from one year to the next. After an initial buildup, ECsw at 225 cm was relatively stable. For the last 2 yr, ECsw at 225 cm was consistently higher under alfalfa than corn or fallow areas.A seasonal buildup of SO4 occurred during the growing season. In the fall, SO4 accumulations in the 0‐ to 60‐cm soil layer were highest under corn. By the following spring, there was no difference between the three cropping systems. Rainfall was very effective in leaching seasonal accumulations of SO4 from the soil. A lower Ca/Mg ratio in the CTW, as compared with the soil, resulted in increased concentration of Mg in the 0‐ to 60‐ and 60‐ to 150‐cm soil layers.Corn grain and alfalfa production averaged 8440 and 8230 kg ha−1 for the last two seasons, respectively, and were not adversely affected by salinity produced from the CTW application.

AbstractSaline cooling tower water (CTW) from the Sherburne County electrical power plant in Minnesota is being considered as an irrigation water source on surrounding croplands. Since the soils are coarse‐textured and this region receives an average 66 cm rainfall annually, salt will leach into the underlying aquifer. This study was undertaken to determine composition of drainage waters, leaching fractions (LF), and quality of the underlying aquifer (10–12 m) as affected by irrigation with CTW at two rates under three cropping systems.In a 3‐yr field study (1979–1981), alfalfa (Medicago sativa L.), corn (Zea mays L.), and fallow plots were irrigated at rates that replaced net water deficits (I1) and twice the net water deficits (I2) in the cropped areas. The soil at this site was a Hubbard loamy sand (Udorthentic Haploboroll). Lysimeters, 57 cm in diam, were buried 150 cm below the plots to monitor the composition of the drainage waters and to determine the LF. Wells were installed in all plots to monitor deep movement of the CTW salts into the aquifer.Application of CTW increased the concentration of Ca and SO4 in the drainage waters. These ions together comprised 70–75% of the total ion equivalents measured. Salt concentrations were generally higher under alfalfa than corn and fallow, reflecting its higher water requirement. Drainage waters were undersaturated with respect to gypsum; thus, SO4, added from the irrigation water stayed in solution. The LF under the I2 rate averaged 0.58. The LF under the alfalfa and corn (I1 rate) averaged 0.34 and 0.38, respectively. The LFs under the I1 rate were higher than anticipated. Apparently, even when irrigation was scheduled at a rate consistent with satisfactory crop growth, a considerable amount of water—and in turn salts—were lost from the soil profile due to heavy, erratic precipitation.Salt concentrations in the aquifer increased greatly over the 3 yr. Sulfate concentrations peaked at 6.4 mmol L−1 in 1981, over 20 times greater than background levels and higher than U.S. Environmental Protection Agency drinking water standards.

Crop ScienceVolume 23, Issue 2 cropsci1983.0011183X002300020056x p. 399-399 Registration of Crop Cultivar Registration of Mystic Kentucky Bluegrass1 (Reg. No. 25) R. E. Engel, R. E. EngelSearch for more papers by this authorF. Curra, F. CurraSearch for more papers by this authorA. Caravella, A. CaravellaSearch for more papers by this authorA. R. Mazur, A. R. MazurSearch for more papers by this authorR. H. Hurley, R. H. Hurley Professor, Soils and Crops Dep., New Jersey Agric. Exp. Stn.; superintendent, Seawane Country Club, Newlett Harbor, NY 11557; former uperintendent Echo Lake Country Club; associate professor, Dep. of Horticulture, Clemson Univ., Clemson, SC 29631; and director of research, Lofts Seed, Inc., P.O. Box 146, Bound Brook, NJ 08805.Search for more papers by this author R. E. Engel, R. E. EngelSearch for more papers by this authorF. Curra, F. CurraSearch for more papers by this authorA. Caravella, A. CaravellaSearch for more papers by this authorA. R. Mazur, A. R. MazurSearch for more papers by this authorR. H. Hurley, R. H. Hurley Professor, Soils and Crops Dep., New Jersey Agric. Exp. Stn.; superintendent, Seawane Country Club, Newlett Harbor, NY 11557; former uperintendent Echo Lake Country Club; associate professor, Dep. of Horticulture, Clemson Univ., Clemson, SC 29631; and director of research, Lofts Seed, Inc., P.O. Box 146, Bound Brook, NJ 08805.Search for more papers by this author First published: 01 March 1983 https://doi.org/10.2135/cropsci1983.0011183X002300020056xCitations: 2 1 Registered by the Crop Sci. Soc. of Am. New Jerseyt Agric. Exp. Stn., Cook College, Rutgers Univ., New Brunswick, N. J. 08903. Publication No. D-15463-1-82. AboutPDF ToolsRequest permissionExport citationAdd to favoritesTrack citation ShareShare Give accessShare full text accessShare full-text accessPlease review our Terms and Conditions of Use and check box below to share full-text version of article.I have read and accept the Wiley Online Library Terms and Conditions of UseShareable LinkUse the link below to share a full-text version of this article with your friends and colleagues. Learn more.Copy URL No abstract is available for this article.Citing Literature Volume23, Issue2March–April 1983Pages 399-399 RelatedInformation