Abstract Biodiversity indicators, such as temporal trends in relative species abundance, are essential to report on the status, pressures and responses of biodiversity and to guide environmental policies. These trends are often estimated from datasets collected from standardised, long‐term and large‐scale biodiversity monitoring schemes thanks to volunteer‐based citizen science including volunteers with a broad range of naturalist skills. However, the involvement of the general public, predominantly considered as non‐experts, in the observation and inventory of biodiversity raises questions about data quality and reliability. Here, we focused on three nationwide butterfly monitoring schemes involving volunteers with varied naturalist skills in France and the United Kingdom. For each scheme, the temporal trends and interannual variations in abundance of 20 common species/species groups were estimated. Then a detailed analysis was conducted to ascertain which features related to butterfly biology, ecology or the protocols' characteristics best explain the differences in species trends or interannual variations between schemes involving expert naturalists and those relying on the general public. Similar interannual variations between schemes were found for generalist, migratory and easily recognisable butterflies, but no variable explained differences in temporal trends. In addition, considering species groups when it is difficult to distinguish species reliably did not yield poorer results than considering individual species. The considerable amount of data collected by volunteers regardless of their naturalist expertise can be used to generate reliable and robust species biodiversity indicators, including hard‐to‐access locations such as private gardens, something that traditional methods or expert data cannot capture.

In response to increasing human pressures on biodiversity, conservation targets have been set to reduce these pressures and halt biodiversity decline. However, consequences of these objectives on common species are rarely studied. We analyse the effect of a range of drivers related to climate, land use and land-use intensity on 265 common bird and 144 common butterfly species from more than 20,000 sites between 2000 and 2021 across 27 European countries. We use land use and land-use intensity scenarios produced previously using the Intergovernmental Science-Policy Platform on Biodiversity and Ecosystem Services (IPBES) Nature Futures Framework and climate change scenarios to project biodiversity drivers in Europe up to 2050. We translate these driver changes into abundance variations for common bird and butterfly species and for multi-species indicators used to monitor common biodiversity status in Europe. The projected trends relatively improve, while still declining for birds, notably farmland species, under the scenarios meeting conservation objectives, with few effects on butterflies. No scenario shows a stop or a reversal in the average decline in abundance of bird and butterfly species. Our results therefore question the common biodiversity future under current conservation policies and highlight the need for other anticipatory frameworks not implicitly based on a growing need for natural resources.

Understanding the mechanisms and commonalities driving species' vulnerability is essential for prioritizing and guiding conservation efforts. Trait-based approaches offer a mechanistic foundation for generalizing species vulnerabilities within a taxonomic group. Here, we assess how the vulnerability of European Odonata is associated with their traits. Our aim was to (1) quantify the link between traits and vulnerability and (2) identify the most important traits in a multi-trait context. For 123 species, we linked 3 vulnerability indicators (Red List categories, distribution trends and areas of occupancy) to a dozen traits, using discriminant and redundancy analyses. We find that 48 to 64% of the variability in vulnerability indicators is explained by traits. The main traits related to vulnerability are habitat, voltinism and thermal preferences. More specifically, vulnerable species tend to associate with oligotrophic habitats or Mediterranean streams. They also tend to have longer life cycles, but this relationship is reversed for species with a small area of occupancy. Species vulnerable because of their decreasing distribution tend to have cold thermal preferences. Vulnerable species generally show a narrow thermal range (except for species vulnerable because of their decreasing distribution). Assessing species' vulnerability is crucial to inform conservation: our trait-based approach provides clues regarding pressures responsible for species vulnerability, thus allowing to plan conservation action targeting groups of species sensitive to the same pressures, rather than focusing on individual species. Our method provides novel opportunities for predicting species' vulnerability, and paves the way for building a multi-species conservation indicator for Odonata.

Biodiversity indicators, such as temporal trends in relative species abundance, are essential to report on the status, pressures and responses of biodiversity and to guide environmental policies. These trends are often estimated from datasets collected from standardised, long-term and large-scale biodiversity monitoring schemes thanks to volunteer-based citizen science including volunteers with a broad range of naturalist skills. However, the involvement of the general public, predominantly considered as non-experts, in the observation and inventory of biodiversity raises questions about data quality and reliability. Here, we focused on three nationwide butterfly monitoring schemes involving volunteers with varied naturalist skills in France and the United Kingdom. For each scheme, the temporal trends and interannual variations in abundance of 20 common species/species groups were estimated. Then a detailed analysis was conducted to ascertain which features related to butterfly biology, ecology or the protocols' characteristics best explain the differences in species trends or interannual variations between schemes involving expert naturalists and those relying on the general public. Similar interannual variations between schemes were found for generalist, migratory and easily recognisable butterflies, but no variable explained differences in temporal trends. In addition, considering species groups when it is difficult to distinguish species reliably did not yield poorer results than considering individual species. The considerable amount of data collected by volunteers regardless of their naturalist expertise can be used to generate reliable and robust species biodiversity indicators, including hard-to-access locations such as private gardens, something that traditional methods or expert data cannot capture. Les indicateurs de biodiversit & eacute;, tels que les tendances temporelles d'abondance des esp & egrave;ces, sont essentiels pour rendre compte de l'& eacute;tat, des pressions et des r & eacute;ponses de la biodiversit & eacute; et pour orienter les politiques environnementales. Ces tendances sont souvent estim & eacute;es & agrave; partir de donn & eacute;es collect & eacute;es par des programmes de suivis standardis & eacute;s, & agrave; long terme et & agrave; grande & eacute;chelle, mobilisant des sciences participatives et incluant des volontaires ayant un large & eacute;ventail de comp & eacute;tences naturalistes. Cependant, l'implication du grand public, principalement consid & eacute;r & eacute; comme non-expert, dans l'observation de la biodiversit & eacute; soul & egrave;ve des questions sur la qualit & eacute; et la fiabilit & eacute; des donn & eacute;es. Nous nous sommes concentr & eacute;s sur trois programmes nationaux de suivi des papillons impliquant des volontaires aux comp & eacute;tences naturalistes vari & eacute;es en France et au Royaume-Uni. Pour chaque programme, les tendances temporelles et les variations interannuelles d'abondance de 20 esp & egrave;ces/groupes d'esp & egrave;ces communes ont & eacute;t & eacute; estim & eacute;es. Une analyse a ensuite & eacute;t & eacute; men & eacute;e pour d & eacute;terminer quelles caract & eacute;ristiques li & eacute;es & agrave; la biologie, l'& eacute;cologie des papillons ou aux protocoles expliquent le mieux les diff & eacute;rences de tendances ou de variations interannuelles entre les programmes impliquant des naturalistes experts ou le grand public. Des variations interannuelles similaires entre programmes ont & eacute;t & eacute; observ & eacute;es pour les papillons g & eacute;n & eacute;ralistes, migrateurs et facilement reconnaissables, mais aucune variable n'explique les diff & eacute;rences de tendances temporelles. De plus, consid & eacute;rer des groupes d'esp & egrave;ces lorsqu'il est difficile de distinguer les esp & egrave;ces de mani & egrave;re fiable n'a pas produit de r & eacute;sultats moins bons que la prise en compte d'esp & egrave;ces individuelles. La quantit & eacute; consid & eacute;rable de donn & eacute;es collect & eacute;es par les volontaires, quelle que soit leur expertise naturaliste, peut & ecirc;tre utilis & eacute;e pour g & eacute;n & eacute;rer des indicateurs de biodiversit & eacute; fiables et robustes, incluant des lieux difficiles d'acc & egrave;s comme les jardins priv & eacute;s, ce que les m & eacute;thodes traditionnelles ou les donn & eacute;es d'experts ne peuvent capturer.

Aim To examine how butterfly population trends respond to climate change and urbanisation at a continental scale, and whether responses differ between urban and rural environments. Location 869 sites across 12 European countries, spanning six bioclimatic zones. Time Period 1976-2021. Major Taxa Studied Butterflies (Lepidoptera). Methods We analysed long-term monitoring data from > 8400 populations of 145 species representing a wide range of ecological and life-history traits. Population trends were modelled in relation to climate variables (temperature, precipitation and aridity), urbanisation (built-up surface), and their interactions with urban context (urban vs. rural) and species traits (trophic specialisation, body size, reproductive rate and thermal adaptation). Results Climate warming and aridification were consistently linked to population declines in both rural and urban contexts, while precipitation effects varied by location and species. Urbanisation alone did not predict trends, but the urban-rural context strongly modulated species' responses to warming, indicating potential synergies between climate change and urbanisation. The stronger impact of warming in urban populations likely reflects elevated baseline temperatures and reduced habitat suitability and connectivity in urban landscapes, limiting thermal buffering. Species with colder thermal niches and lower reproductive rates were most vulnerable to warming, as warming exceeds the thermal optima of cold-adapted species and lower reproductive rates limit their capacity to buffer climate-driven population declines. Under aridification, which can reduce host-plant availability, trophic specialists declined more in urban areas, whereas generalists unexpectedly declined more in rural sites, suggesting context-dependent constraints under increasing water limitation. Main Conclusions Our findings highlight the complex interplay between climate change, urban context, and species traits in driving population dynamics. Importantly, our results suggest that urbanisation generally amplifies the negative impact of climate change on insect population trends.

Species traits are an important facet of biodiversity and are useful for testing many ecological and evolutionary hypotheses. Many initiatives to centralize species traits have emerged in recent years, but there are still large gaps in species traits’ knowledge in the literature. Odonata (dragonflies and damselflies) are present in most freshwater and surrounding ecosystems and are important indicators of freshwater health and conditions across the land-water interface. They are also important predators and prey both as larvae and adults and are vital to land-water energy transfers and community functioning. Here we present OdonTraits Europe, a database aggregating traits of all 143 European resident Odonata species. Our database compiles 43 traits representing adult and larvae morphology, life history, behaviour, phenology, and other ecological attributes, along with species legal, endemism, and conservation status, with a taxonomic coverage of >95% for all traits. Accessible and robust coverage of Odonata species traits will help to advance knowledge and applications involving this sentinel of the freshwater realm.

Species populations naturally fluctuate, yet long-term trend analysis can reveal patterns of success, decline, or stability under global change pressures. While responses to climate change are well-documented, its synergy with another major global driver, urbanization, remains understudied. Here, we analyzed long-term monitoring data from over 8,400 populations of 145 butterfly species across Europe, representing a high diversity of species traits, to assess population trends in response to climate change and urbanization. We examined how population responses vary between urban and rural contexts, providing insights into the influence of site-specific conditions. Climate warming was associated with population declines, which were more pronounced in urban areas. The effect of precipitation varied between environments: increases in precipitation generally benefited populations in rural areas but had detrimental effects in urban ones. Aridity consistently drove population declines across environments, with slightly stronger effects in urban areas. Species with colder climatic niches declined the most in response to warming, increased aridity, and reduced precipitation, while trophic specialists were particularly vulnerable to aridity and precipitation changes in urban environments. Although increasing urbanization did not explain overall population trends, its effects became evident when considering species traits, with certain traits being more vulnerable to urbanization. Specifically, species with narrow climatic niches declined the most in response to urbanization in rural areas, while those and larger body sizes decline the most in urban environments. Our findings highlight the complex interplay between environmental change, landscape context, and species traits in shaping biodiversity outcomes. Importantly, our results suggest that urbanization generally amplifies the impact of climate change on insect population trends. ### Competing Interest Statement The authors have declared no competing interest.

In response to increasing threats to biodiversity, conservation objectives have been set to halt biodiversity decline by reducing direct anthropogenic drivers. However, the potential effects of these objectives on common species remain rarely studied. We analyse the effect of a range of drivers related to climate, land use and land use intensity, on 265 common bird and 144 common butterfly species from more than 20,000 sites between 2000 and 2021 across 26 European countries. We use land-use and land-use intensity scenarios produced previously using the IPBES Nature Futures Framework, and climate change scenarios in order to project biodiversity drivers in Europe up to 2050. We translate these driver changes into abundance variations for common bird and butterfly species, and for multi-species indicators used to monitor common biodiversity status in Europe. The projected trends relatively improve, while still declining for birds, notably farmland species, under the scenarios meeting conservation objectives, with few effects on butterflies. No scenario shows a stop or a reversal in the average decline in abundance of bird and butterfly species. Our results therefore question the common biodiversity future under current conservation policies and highlight the need for other anticipatory frameworks, not implicitly based on a growing need for natural resources.

Species show intra-specific variation in responses to climate change linked to adaptation to the local climatic conditions. Likewise, species are expected to be more resilient to climate change at the centre of their bioclimatic niche, but this pattern is not general. We show that species sensitivity to climatic anomalies varies with local adaptation and the position in the bioclimatic niche, using long-term butterfly monitoring data for 34 species. Climatic anomalies negatively affected all populations of locally adapted species. Globally adapted species were positively or negatively affected by climatic anomalies, depending on population location and direction of anomalies. These responses impacted population trends as globally adapted species showed steeper declines at the trailing margin. Surprisingly, locally adapted species showed stable abundances at the trailing margin, but declines at the leading; which could be explained by the with the 'warmer is better' hypothesis where thermodynamics limit insect performance at cooler conditions.

Research has provided considerable evidence that temperature significantly influences species biology. Its influence is so great that climate corridors have been proposed to assist species in tracking their climatic niche at macroecological scales, reinforcing the importance of accounting for this variable at all scales to address the climatic threat to biodiversity. This threat is exacerbated in cities where artificialization enhances the effect of climate change, to the extent that urban temperatures are a public health concern, with heatwaves causing excess human mortality and having a stark impact on biodiversity. Recent developments in climate monitoring networks enable characterizing the spatiotemporal structure of urban climates in ever greater detail, with many cities already equipped with such networks. The impact of temperature on biodiversity, on the same scale as these networks allows, has never been explored. Characterizing urban climate infrastructures and cool corridors, and thus thermal connectivity for species, would enrich and strengthen existing ecological infrastructures, on the basis of scientific evidence. In this perspective, we discuss how stronger collaborations between ecologists and climatologists could help leverage the full potential of urban climate monitoring networks. We highlight research opportunities they could offer in terms of studying the impact of urban climate on biodiversity and the efforts that need to be pursued to enable co-designing and make interdisciplinary collaborations operational. Such interdisciplinary research on urban climate and its impact is all the more important that its outcomes can help better inform urban planning and mitigate the impacts of climate change on people and biodiversity. This article is categorized under: Climate and Development > Urbanization, Development, and Climate Change Assessing Impacts of Climate Change > Observed Impacts of Climate Change Climate, Ecology, and Conservation > Observed Ecological Changes

Research has provided considerable evidence that temperature significantly influences species biology.Its influence is so great that climate corridors have been proposed to assist species in tracking their climatic niche at macroecological scales, reinforcing the importance of accounting for this variable at all scales to address the climatic threat to biodiversity.This threat is exacerbated in cities where artificialization enhance the effect of climate change, to the extent that urban temperatures are a public health concern, with heatwaves causing excess human mortality and having a stark impact on biodiversity.Recent developments in climate monitoring networks enable characterizing the spatio-temporal structure of urban climates in ever greater detail, with many cities already equipped with such networks.The level of understanding they provide opens new opportunities for studying the impact of urban climate on biodiversity.Characterizing urban climate infrastructures and cool corridors, and thus thermal connectivity for species, would enrich and strengthen existing ecological infrastructures, on the basis of scientific evidence.In the context of climate change, integrating such infrastructures in urban planning would both sensitize society to the climate challenge and address public health issues by improving cities habitability for the growing proportion of the world's population.Yet, ecologists and climatologists, have to strengthen collaborations to address this dual challenge -environmental and societal -so prevalent in cities.We summarize interdisciplinary discussions we had between climatologists and ecologists, and hope it will inspire future research to inform urban planning and mitigate the impacts of climate change on people and biodiversity.Graphical/Visual Abstract and Caption (a) The impact of global warming is intensifying in urban environments.(b-c) Climatologists develop monitoring networks to characterize the spatiotemporal structure of temperature cities.(d) Ecologists must leverage this data to understand the effects of urban climate on species dynamics and inform measures for biodiversity conservation and sustainable urban development.

1. Pollination services are affected by landscape context, farming management and pollinator community structure, all of which impact flower visitation rates, pollen deposition and final production. We studied these processes in Argentina for highbush blueberry crops, which depend on pollinators to produce marketable yields.2. We studied how land cover and honeybee stocking influence the abundance of wild and managed pollinators in blueberry crops, using structural equation modelling to disentangle the cascading effects through which pollinators contribute to blueberry fruit number, size, nutritional content and overall yield.3. All pollinator functional groups responded to landscape changes at a spatial scale under 1000 m, and the significance or direction of the effects were modulated by the field-level deployment of honeybee hives.4. Fruit diameter increased with pollen deposited, but decreased with honeybee abundance, which, had indirect effects on fruit acidity. Honeybees had a positive effect on the number of fruit produced by the plants and also benefited the overall yield (kg plant(-1)) through independent effects on both the quality and quantity components of fruit production.5. Synthesis and applications. Deployment of beehives in blueberry fields can buffer, but not compensate for the negative effects on honeybee abundance produced by surrounding large scale none-flowering crops. Such compensation would require high-quality beehives by monitoring their health and strength. The contribution of honeybees to crop production is not equal across production metrics. That is, higher abundance of honeybees increases the number of berries produced but at the cost of smaller and more acidic fruits, potentially reducing their market value. Growers must consider this trade-off between fruit quantity and quality when actively managing honeybee abundance.

Species niches may impact population and community stability by influencing average population sizes and species richness, however, niche-based approaches are rarely applied when studying stability in natural communities. Here we utilise a niche-based approach to link niche characteristics to community stability in 140 European butterfly communities. We represent niches as hyper-volumes and generate metrics for niche overlap, mismatch, and volume. Using structural equation modelling we then test five hypotheses linking niche and community characteristics to mechanisms influencing community stability. We find that the position of a site relative to the niches of the species pool predicts species richness, and that sites with species near the centre of their niche have higher mean abundance. We then show that niche position and size influence population stability, and species richness increases asynchrony which subsequently influences community stability. Our approach demonstrates that niches metrics are useful tools for understanding the dynamics of natural communities.

AimAnthropogenic-driven biodiversity loss can impact ecosystem stability. However, most studies have only evaluated the diversity-stability relationship at the local scale and we do not fully understand which factors stabilize animal populations and communities across scales. Here, we investigate the role of species dispersal ability, climate, spatial distance and different facets of biodiversity on the stability of butterfly populations and communities across multiple spatial scales.LocationPrimarily Western Europe.Time Period2005-2016.Major Taxa StudiedButterflies (Rhopalocera) of Europe.MethodsWe assembled a continent-wide database of European butterflies' abundance and used Structural Equation Modelling to evaluate the direct and indirect effects of multiple stabilizing mechanisms. In parallel, we tested the effect of dispersal ability on the stability at multiple spatial scales, using a butterfly mobility index as an indicator of dispersal capacity.ResultsRegional stability strongly reflected local stability, which in turn was driven by both taxonomic and functional alpha-diversity. Spatial asynchrony was also important for regional stability and it was driven by both functional beta-diversity and metapopulation asynchrony, which in turn increased with spatial distance among communities. We observed a positive effect of temperature on functional alpha-diversity and on local stability, whereas precipitation negatively influenced local diversity. Finally, spatial asynchrony contributed more to the regional stability of less mobile species compared to highly mobile ones, indicating that both extrinsic and intrinsic determinants of connectivity impact regional stability indirectly.Main ConclusionsOur results demonstrate the importance of local and regional processes for regional stability. However, the relative contribution of spatial asynchrony and metapopulation asynchrony increases with connectivity loss, especially for less mobile species, indicating that landscape management should be tailored depending on the dispersal capacity of organisms. Both local biodiversity loss and regional biotic homogenization destabilize metacommunities, with potential implications for the reliable provision of ecosystem functions.

1. Species interactions are fundamental to the stability and productivity of ecosystems. To improve our capacity to predict and understand how climate change shapes the distribution of species and the dynamics of biotic interactions, we need to develop spatially explicit multi-species models that are built upon species-specific responses to changing conditions.2. We developed a two-dimensional diffusion-advection-reaction predator-prey model that integrates species-specific responses to heterogeneous landscapes, affecting species dispersal, reproduction and survival rates. We derived conditions for the stability and feasibility of the coexistence steady-state and observed how temperature variation stabilises or destabilises the system.3. We conducted numerical simulations to explore the effect of predicted extreme temperatures on the spatial dynamics of a parasitoid-butterfly system and their interactions. Applied to four different climatic environments, the numerical approximations demonstrate the asymmetric impact of a warming climate on interacting species. The output density distribution maps highlight the capability of our model to produce interpretable multiscale predictions which can be used to identify and evaluate species vulnerability locally and across their range.4. By building upon a solid mechanistic understanding of species-specific responses to environmental change, our model can be extended to other species and variables, including environments where the availability of empirical data is limited, and explore the dynamics and distribution of interacting species under different scenarios of environmental change.### Competing Interest StatementThe authors have declared no competing interest.

Pollination management for highbush blueberry crops (Vaccinium spp.) generally depends on beehives stocked at variable densities, with little consideration given to optimal pollination levels dictated by the mating system of the crop. This approach limits our capability to accurately forecast the consequences of animal pollination on crop productivity and can result in pollination shortfalls. Using experimental and observational data, we estimated optimal pollination thresholds for blueberry crops that maximize fruit diameter. We manipulated stigmatic pollen loads and used Bayesian models to evaluate the effects on fruit diameter. In this way, we were able to define thresholds for deficient, optimal and supraoptimal pollen deposition in blueberries. These thresholds were then evaluated under field conditions in blueberry farms, and used simulations to estimate the minimum number of honeybee visits required for optimal blueberry pollen deposition. A quadratic relationship described fruit diameter in response to stigmatic pollen load, with optimal pollen deposition peaking at 192 pollen tetrads and ranging between 112 and 274. Our simulations showed that a flower visitation rate guaranteeing, on average, six to seven honeybee visits per flower (i.e. flower visitation rate of 0.6 visits per 100 flowers h−1) would result in 60% of the plant flowers receiving optimum stigmatic pollen deposition. Higher numbers of honeybee visits increased the probability that blueberry stigmatic pollen loads were below the optimum and the probability that smaller berries were produced. We show that adverse pollination scenarios in blueberries can occur through different pathways, either because of a deficit or an excess of pollination that directly impacts the quality of the fruits produced. By identifying thresholds, we provide a pragmatic basis for adaptive management of honeybees based on average visitation rates that are most suitable for growers to manipulate. Our study provides new insights into the mechanisms behind pollination, fruit production, and the contribution of honeybee to blueberry crops. We highlight that systematic pollination management through flower visitation monitoring and clear optimal pollination targets can help prevent detrimental pollination scenarios.

Identifying large-scale patterns of variation in pollinator dependence (PD) in crops is important from both basic and applied perspectives. Evidence from wild plants indicates that this variation can be structured latitudinally. Individuals from populations at high latitudes may be more selfed and less dependent on pollinators due to higher environmental instability and overall lower temperatures, environmental conditions that may affect pollinator availability. However, whether this pattern is similarly present in crops remains unknown. Soybean (Glycine max), one of the most important crops globally, is partially self-pollinated and autogamous, exhibiting large variation in the extent of PD (from a 0 to ∼50% decrease in yield in the absence of animal pollination). We examined latitudinal variation in soybean’s PD using data from 28 independent studies distributed along a wide latitudinal gradient (4–43 degrees). We estimated PD by comparing yields between open-pollinated and pollinator-excluded plants. In the absence of pollinators, soybean yield was found to decrease by an average of ∼30%. However, PD decreases abruptly at high latitudes, suggesting a relative increase in autogamous seed production. Pollinator supplementation does not seem to increase seed production at any latitude. We propose that latitudinal variation in PD in soybean may be driven by temperature and photoperiod affecting the expression of cleistogamy and androsterility. Therefore, an adaptive mating response to an unpredictable pollinator environment apparently common in wild plants can also be imprinted in highly domesticated and genetically-modified crops.

At large scales, the mechanisms underpinning stability in natural communities may vary in importance due to changes in species composition, mean abundance, and species richness. Here we link species characteristics (niche positions) and community characteristics (richness and abundance) to evaluate the importance of stability mechanisms in 156 butterfly communities monitored across three European countries and spanning five bioclimatic regions. We construct niche-based hierarchical structural Bayesian models to explain first differences in abundance, population stability, and species richness between the countries, and then explore how these factors impact community stability both directly and indirectly (via synchrony and population stability). Species richness was partially explained by the position of a site relative to the niches of the species pool, and species near the centre of their niche had higher average population stability. The differences in mean abundance, population stability, and species richness then influenced how much variation in community stability they explained across the countries. We found, using variance partitioning, that community stability in Finnish communities was most influenced by community abundance, whereas this aspect was unimportant in Spain with species synchrony explaining most variation; the UK was somewhat intermediate with both factors explaining variation. Across all countries, the diversity-stability relationship was indirect with species richness reducing synchrony which increased community stability, with no direct effects of species richness. Our results suggest that in natural communities, biogeographical variation observed in key drivers of stability, such as population abundance and species richness, leads to community stability being limited by different factors and that this can partially be explained due to the niche characteristics of the European butterfly assemblage.

La apicultura en la Región Andino-Norpatagónica es una actividad productiva de pequeña escala, con gran potencial de desarrollo. Conocer la distribución espacio-temporal de las especies de plantas melíferas, que aportan a la nutrición de las colmenas de Apis mellifera, es esencial para planificar dicho desarrollo. Asimismo, clasificar las comunidades vegetales en unidades de flora melífera puede ser una herramienta de manejo apícola y del paisaje, ya que permite determinar dónde y cuándo se encuentran disponibles los recursos florales. Realizamos una revisión bibliográfica exhaustiva de la distribución, por comunidad vegetal y momento de floración, de las especies de plantas melíferas en la Región Andino-Norpatagónica. Luego, caracterizamos la riqueza y la composición de especies melíferas en cada comunidad y, a partir de su similitud, identificamos unidades de flora melífera y sus curvas de floración. En total, identificamos 72 familias botánicas, 191 géneros y 254 especies melíferas (114 nativas y 140 exóticas). Las especies melíferas se distribuyeron en 20 comunidades vegetales, concentrando la mayor riqueza las unidades antrópica y árida. En general, la mayor riqueza de especies en flor ocurre entre noviembre y enero, con un pico de ~170 especies entre diciembre y enero. La mayor disponibilidad de recursos florales en áreas antrópicas sugiere que la actividad apícola podría acotarse a dichos ambientes, restringiendo la presión sobre ambientes naturales. Sin embargo, el número elevado de plantas exóticas que utiliza Apis mellifera evidencia la importancia de planificar y monitorear con cuidado la actividad apícola, registrando la ubicación de apiarios, el número de colmenas y sus efectos potenciales sobre los polinizadores nativos y la polinización de las especies de plantas melíferas.