Abes Run wetland is a biologically diverse, 82-ac (33-ha) complex of wet meadow, marsh, scrub-shrub, and forested-swamp communities in Canaan Valley, WV. In 2002, we sampled the vegetation in six 65-ft (20-m)-wide transects and identified a total of 179 vascular plant species. We classified 23 species as introduced; 38 occurred at or near the southernmost known limit of their range. Two graminoid-dominated (e.g., Carex spp. [sedges], Leersia spp. [cutgrass], and Scirpus spp. [bulrush]) and forb-dominated (Euthamia spp. [goldenrods]) transects occurred in an area that had been forested and later inundated by Castor canadensis (North American Beaver) in the 1970s. Four transects were mixed-deciduous and coniferous forested-swamp communities. With the exception of transect 5, these sites had an organic horizon that was 32-40-in (80-100-cm) deep in the center, and the water table tended to persist at the wetland surface through the first half of the growing season. The tree stratum was well-developed, although discontinuous, and was dominated by mixtures of Fraxinus nigra (Black Ash), Abies balsamea (Balsam Fir), Picea rubens (Red Spruce), and Betula alleghaniensis (Yellow Birch). A rich shrub layer of Rhamnus alnifolia (Alder-leaved Buckthorn), Ilex verticillata (Winterberry), and Alnus incana ssp. rugosa (Speckled Alder) was also present. The broken overstory created a variable light regime on the wetland floor and as a consequence, there was high diversity of herbaceous plants. Although a rank comparison of 1945 vs. 1997 vegetative-cover classes did not yield any significant differences, we noted 3 trends: 1) North American Beaver activities reduced the area of coniferous swamp forests, 2) wet-graminoid areas increased as beaver dams were abandoned and their impoundments dried, and 3) the extent of scrub-shrub communities increased, particularly in the upper portions of the wetland's drainage.

Canaan Valley (hereafter, the Valley), in northeastern West Virginia, supports large areas of wetland, upland forest, and upland non-forest habitats at relatively high elevations, providing potential habitat for a variety of rare plant species. The presence of 54 species of plants considered to be rare and of conservation concern in West Virginia plus 22 watchlist species has been confirmed in the Valley. No federally listed threatened or endangered plants have been found. One of the rare species is the globally critically imperiled Platanthera shriveri (Shriver's Frilly Orchid) and 4 are globally vulnerable-Gymnocarpium appalachianum (Appalachian Oak Fern), Hypericum mitchellianum (Blue Ridge St. Johnswort), Euphorbia purpurea (Glade Spurge), and Polemonium vanbruntiae (Bog Jacob's-ladder). Rare plants are found throughout the Valley; 80% occur in wetlands, and a significant assemblage is associated with wetlands on Greenbrier Limestone. Globally rare species are Appalachian endemics, but 41 of the Valley's rare and watchlist plants are primarily northern in distribution. Extant native populations are known in West Virginia only from the Valley for 3 species-Carex atherodes (Awned Sedge), Gentianopsis crinita (Greater Fringed Gentian), and Viburnum trilobum (American Cranberry-bush)-and a significant portion of all known West Virginia occurrences for at least another 16 species are in the Valley. Several rare plant species grow in multiple places in the Valley, but others are known from only 1 or 2 sites and are quite vulnerable. Non-native insect pests threaten Abies balsamea (Balsam Fir) and Fraxinus nigra (Black Ash). There are a number of threats to the Valley's rare plants: invasive plants, especially Typha latifolia (Broadleaf Cattail), Iris pseudoacorus (Yellow Flag), Phalaris arundinacea (Reed Canarygrass), and Microstegium vimineum (Japanese Stiltgrass); browsing by Odocoileus virginianus (White-tailed Deer); residential development; hydrologic changes to wetlands; and climate change.

Beaver Creek, a tributary of the Blackwater River just north of Canaan Valley in northeastern West Virginia, runs parallel to the proposed alignment of a major four-lane highway called Appalachian Corridor H. Beaver Creek and many of its major tributaries are characterized by low pH, little alkalinity, and high levels of dissolved metals due to the geochemical characteristics of the soil's parent material and continuing impacts from past coal mining. During the planning phase of this road project, we identified two major environmental concerns: (1) our ability to predict and manage water-quality impairments that will likely result from the cuts and fills of new material, and (2) the legacy effects of mine refuse from historic coal mines. In the latter case, although many refuse sites are located outside the proposed highway's alignment, drainage from these sites will be intercepted by the highway's water-control structures. We (West Virginia University [WVU]) have collaborated with the West Virginia Division of Highways (WVDOH) to minimize construction-related impacts to Beaver Creek's water quality. More specifically, we have evaluated strategies by which water collection and conveyance structures can be integrated with passive water-remediation processes during the highway's design and construction. In March 2000, we began monitoring water quality in the Beaver Creek drainage. We measured physical, chemical, and biological indicators of water quality and present these data here to serve as a baseline for future comparisons. In general, the water in Beaver Creek was acidic with an average pH of 5.1 in its headwaters and 6.1 above its confluence with the Blackwater River. The water also carried little or no alkalinity. The untreated water seeping from mine-waste piles was highly acidic, with an average pH of 3.0, carried high levels of dissolved sulfate and iron, and featured excess acid-production capacity. After we identified the main sources of water-quality impairment-the locations of mine-waste piles and acidic seeps-we formulated preliminary recommendations for minimizing the impacts of highway construction on the Creek's water quality. For example, we recommended the implementation of acid-base accounting on the overburden that would be disturbed during construction. We also suggested special material-handling procedures. Based on our preliminary water-quality data, we recommended a series of passive treatment processes that could be incorporated into the road's design, construction, and operation. Future treatment decisions will be informed by our growing dataset. Further, because many sources of water-quality impairment are located within the basin but beyond the road's proposed alignment, efforts must be made to engage diverse stake-holders to leverage support for protecting and restoring the Beaver Creek watershed.

Abstract An understanding of historic and current water quality is needed to manage and improve aquatic communities within the Blackwater River watershed, WV. The Blackwater River, which historically offered an excellent Salvelinus fontinalis (Brook Trout) fishery, has been affected by logging, coal mining, use of off-road vehicles, and land development. Using information-theoretic methods, we examined trends in water quality at 12 sites in the watershed for the 14 years of 1980–1993. Except for Beaver Creek, downward trends in acidity and upward trends in alkalinity, conductivity, and hardness were consistent with decreases in hydrogen ion concentration. Water-quality trends for Beaver Creek were inconsistent with the other sites and reflect ongoing coal-mining influences. Dissolved oxygen trended downward, possibly due to natural conditions, but remained above thresholds that would be detrimental to aquatic life. Water quality changed only slightly within the watershed from 1980–1993, possibly reflecting few changes in development and land uses during this time. These data serve as a baseline for future water-quality studies and may help to inform management planning.

The rare plants and unusual wetland communities of Canaan Valley are potentially threatened by establishment of exotic and invasive plants. We consulted various references and assembled a list of 106 invasive and/or exotic plant species that have been found growing in Canaan Valley; the most speciose families are Poaceae (grasses), Fabaceae (legumes), and Asteraceae (sunflowers). We recommend that diverse local stakeholders cooperate to plan and implement a program to prevent the establishment of highly invasive plants in Canaan Valley.

Canaan Valley (hereafter, the Valley) is a 34,600-ac (14,000-ha), high-elevation valley in the Central Appalachian Mountains of West Virginia. Its diverse wetland and upland habitats support a wide variety of plant communities, many of which are extremely rare. The prominence of rare communities is associated with the diversity of topographic settings, soils, geology, and hydrology, as well as the effects of human settlement and resource exploitation. Most of the rare plant communities are found in the wetlands of the Valley's floor. Virtually all of the communities associated with the Valley's extensive cold peatlands are rare, including (1) mixed conifer swamp-forests of Picea rubens (Red Spruce), Abies balsamea (Balsam Fir), and Tsuga canadensis (Eastern Hemlock), (2) mixed conifer-Fraxinus nigra (Black Ash) bog-forests in limestone-influenced wetlands in the central and southern parts of the Valley, and (3) extensive Sphagnum and Polytrichum bogs in the central and northern parts of Canaan Valley. Shrub communities such as Alnus incana ssp. rugosa (Speckled Alder), Viburnum recognitum (Smooth Arrowwood), and Salix discolor (Glaucous Willow) growing on mineral soils along waterways are also rare. Populus tremuloides (Trembling Aspen) groves, although abundant in the Valley, are extremely limited in the Appalachian region. Lastly, the grass-and forb-dominated grass-bald communities on the surrounding mountain rims show an extremely limited distribution throughout the Central Appalachians.

In order to provide vegetation managers with information on roadside habitats in West Virginia, a statewide roadside vegetation study was conducted in 2000. The vegetation along nearly 1,500 km of four-lane highways was sampled in 339 randomly selected 20 m wide strip plots. An index of occurrence class (IOC) for each species was calculated using the product of the percent frequency of occurrence and relative abundance. A total of 467 species were documented, 325 of which were native. Seven families accounted for more than 50% of all species. When ranked on the basis of total IOC values, 15 of the top 25 species were introduced. Mean IOC values for introduced species (6.0) were significantly greater than native species (4.3, p = 0.0013). We propose that despite initial variability of landform, parent material, forest cover types, and climate, the relative similarity of species composition along the highways we sampled was the result of the physical and biological disturbances associated with initial construction (cuts and fills), and postconstruction seeding and vegetation management efforts.

Wetland and stream mitigation programs originated to offset the unavoidable impacts to wetlands and streams from activities related to development. Until recently, most mitigation in the United States and globally was done on a case-by-case basis, with site selection based on availability. Today, systematic programs that choose sites based on structural and ecological characteristics that give an indication of the feasibility of the site for wetland and stream mitigation banking are necessary. This paper outlines a three-level framework to select, prioritize, and evaluate potential wetland and stream mitigation banking sites. The framework was tested on three ten-digit hydrologic unit code watersheds in West Virginia that were in three different physiographic regions and near proposed future road construction projects. Level 1 included a Geographic Information System (GIS) based analysis of watersheds and appropriate spatial data. Level 2 was a field reconnaissance survey of sites using evaluation criteria weighted with the pairwise comparison Analytical Hierarchy Process. Level 3 was an on-site evaluation of the highly ranked sites to verify the modeling approach. Results showed successful selection of suitable sites for combined wetland and stream mitigation banking. We found the framework to be an efficient and non-subjective way to identify and prioritize wetland and stream mitigation banking sites and has direct applications for other states or regions.

Refining best management practices (BMPs) for future highway construction depends on a comprehensive understanding of environmental impacts from current construction methods. Based on a before-after-control impact (BACI) experimental design, long-term stream monitoring (1997-2006) was conducted at upstream (as control, n = 3) and downstream (as impact, n = 6) sites in the Lost River watershed of the Mid-Atlantic Highlands region, West Virginia. Monitoring data were analyzed to assess impacts of during and after highway construction on 15 water quality parameters and macroinvertebrate condition using the West Virginia stream condition index (WVSCI). Principal components analysis (PCA) identified regional primary water quality variances, and paired t tests and time series analysis detected seven highway construction-impacted water quality parameters which were mainly associated with the second principal component. In particular, impacts on turbidity, total suspended solids, and total iron during construction, impacts on chloride and sulfate during and after construction, and impacts on acidity and nitrate after construction were observed at the downstream sites. The construction had statistically significant impacts on macroinvertebrate index scores (i.e., WVSCI) after construction, but did not change the overall good biological condition. Implementing BMPs that address those construction-impacted water quality parameters can be an effective mitigation strategy for future highway construction in this highlands region.

Large‐scale culvert replacement programs could benefit migratory fish populations by reconnecting reproductive and foraging habitats in fragmented watersheds. The objectives of this study were to: (1) identify stream and culvert characteristics contributing to fish passage barriers within an Appalachian watershed, U.S.A.; (2) quantify the total amount of Brook trout (Salvelinus fontinalis) reproductive habitat isolated above culverts; and (3) use an ecological currency to identify culvert replacement priorities and stream mitigation credit opportunities. We surveyed 120 state‐owned culverts and used a fish passage assessment filter to determine the “passability” of each culvert. We then constructed a geographic information system stream network model to quantify the amount of trout reproductive habitat isolated by culverts. Ninety‐seven percent of surveyed culverts were classified as obstacles or complete barriers to trout dispersal. Culvert impassability was higher in small streams with slopes exceeding 3–5%, suggesting a direct relationship between slope and impassability. Thirty‐three percent of Brook trout reproductive habitat, representing over 200 km of stream, was isolated by culverts. This is a conservative estimate, because we did not survey privately or federally owned culverts. The top 20 prioritized culverts accounted for nearly half of the habitat loss. Our results indicate that standard culvert designs placed in streams with slopes exceeding 5% consistently produce trout dispersal barriers and should be avoided during new road construction. The process developed here provides an efficient method for identifying culvert replacement priorities and may be used to maximize watershed scale benefits of stream restoration.

The likelihood of encountering land impacted by current and/or historic coal mining activities is high when constructing roadways in the Mid-Appalachian region. Through additional disturbance of these lands, environmental impacts Such as acid and dissolved metals loading and subsequent impacts to aquatic flora and fauna will ensue. Consequently, it is necessary to affect a paradigm shift in roadway design and construction to account for the presence of factors that compound the already difficult task of working in a region characterized by steep topography and aggressive geochemistry. In this study, assessments of the water chemistry and biological impacts of a waste pile containing spoils from previous mining and the presence of an exposed coal mine bench were made as representative microcosmic examples of typical conditions found in the region. Based on quantitative measurements of water quality and biological conditions, recommendations are presented for the assessment and avoidance of impacts prior to construction through acid-bearing materials and suggestions are offered for postconstruction remediation at previously impacted sites.

Many wetlands have been constructed in West Virginia as mitigation for a variety of human disturbances, but no comprehensive evaluation on their success has been conducted. Macroinvertebrates are extremely valuable components of functioning wetland ecosystems. As such, benthic and water column invertebrate communities were chosen as surrogates for wetland function in the evaluation of 11 mitigation and 4 reference wetlands in West Virginia. Mitigation wetlands ranged in age from 4 to 21 years old. Overall familial richness, diversity, density and biomass were similar between mitigation and reference wetlands (p > 0.05). Within open water habitats, total benthic invertebrate density was higher in reference wetlands, but mass of common taxa from water column samples was higher in mitigation wetlands (p < 0.05). Planorbidae density from benthic samples in emergent habitats was higher in reference than mitigated wetlands. Benthic Oligochaeta density was higher across open water habitats in mitigation wetlands. All other benthic taxa were similar between wetland types. Among the most common water column orders, Isopoda density was higher in reference wetlands, but Physidae density was higher in mitigation wetlands. Within mitigation wetlands, emergent areas contained higher richness and diversity than open areas. These data indicate that mitigation and reference wetlands generally support similar invertebrate assemblages, especially among benthic populations. The few observed differences are likely attributable to differences in vegetative community composition and structure. Mitigation wetlands currently support abundant and productive invertebrate communities, and as such, provide quality habitat for wetland dependent wildlife species, especially waterbirds and anurans.

Wetland destruction has plagued the U.S. for decades, but the need to compensate for these losses has only been embraced within the last 20 years. Because so many compensatory mitigation wetlands have been created, there is a need to assess the function of these valuable ecosystems relative to natural wetlands. The goal of this study was to evaluate the functional equivalency of mitigation wetlands in West Virginia in supporting hydrophytic plant communities. A series of nested quadrats was used to compare plant community structure among eleven mitigation and four naturally occurring reference wetlands. For all species combined, mean total percent cover across all sampling quadrats per wetland was similar between mitigation and reference wetlands. Species richness, evenness, and diversity were greater in mitigation than in reference wetlands. Mean weighted averages of plant communities calculated using cover values and wetland indicator status were similar between mitigation and reference wetlands. There were, however, major differences in species composition. Mitigation sites tended to have more pioneer species, non-native dominants, and species with relatively lower conservation quality. Ordination analyses suggested that compositional differences become smaller as mitigation sites age. Both mitigation and natural wetlands met criteria for hydrophytic vegetation according to the 1987 U.S. Army Corps of Engineers Wetland Delineation Manual. These data suggest that the mitigation wetlands investigated in this study adequately support hydrophytic vegetation and appear to be developing vegetation similar to reference standards.

Numerous efforts have been made in West Virginia to construct and restore compensatory wetlands as mitigation for natural wetlands destroyed through highway development, timbering, mining, and other human activities. Because such little effort has been made to evaluate these wetlands, there is a need to evaluate the success of these systems. The objective of this study was to determine if mitigation wetlands in West Virginia were adequately supporting ecological communities relative to naturally occurring reference wetlands and to attribute specific characteristics in wetland habitat with trends in wildlife abundance across wetlands. Specifically, avian and anuran communities, as well as habitat quality for eight wetland-dependent wildlife species were evaluated. To supplement this evaluation, vegetation and invertebrate communities also were assessed. Wetland ranks were assigned based on several parameters including richness, abundance, diversity, density, and biomass, depending on which taxa was being analyzed. Mitigation wetlands consistently scored better ranks than reference wetlands across all communities analyzed. Canonical correspondence analysis revealed no correlations between environmental variables and community data. However, trends relating wetland habitat characteristics to community structure were observed. These data stress the need to maintain specific habitat characteristics in mitigated wetlands that are compatible with wildlife colonization and proliferation.

In spite of its size and biological significance, we know little about the ecology of the Pantanal, a 140,000 km2 floodplain in west-central Brazil. Increasing human pressures make this lack of understanding particularly critical. Using transects and 1 m2 circular plots, we documented floristic composition and interacting-environmental conditions associated with littoral herbaceous vegetation along inundation gradients at two ecologically-distinct sites in the Pantanal. We recorded water depth and percent cover for each species in Baía Piuval, a bay in the Bento Gomes River (Mato Grosso), and in a bay in the Acurizal Reserve (Mato Grosso do Sul). Baía Piuval and Acurizal plots contained a total of 22 and 18 macrophyte species, respectively. At both sites Eichhornia azurea and Salvinia auriculata occurred most frequently as dominant or co-dominant species. Chi2 analysis, used to quantify zonations along depth gradients, generated four different groups of species ( p < 0.05) for Baía Piuval. For Acurizal, two significantly different groups ( p < 0.05) occurred with an intermediate assemblage of species that could be assigned to either group. Canonical correspondence analysis, used to analyze species distributions, showed a pattern consistent with the Chi2 results for Baía Piuval but not for Acurizal. Higher species richness and diversity occurred where dry season and low water levels coincided and richness was generally highest in proximal plots where water depths were lowest. Our results are consistent with the few other plant ecological studies reported for the Pantanal. This study can be considered additive to needed baseline data on biota and ecology of this region of South America.

West Virginia, known as the Mountain State, has the third smallest wetland area of the 50 states due to its steep topography. In the last decade, the West Virginia Division of Highways (WVDOH) has begun to construct mitigation wetlands to compensate for areas lost due to highway construction and maintenance. Most of the mitigation sites have been in lowlands bordering small streams. The most common approach attempts to create a near surface saturated zone by excavating the existing soil and placing a clay liner covered by a layer of topsoil to permit revegetation. In addition, berms have been used to channel and contain surface flooding. In order to evaluate the success of these strategies, the WVDOH is sponsoring a study to assess the hydrologic regimes and ecosystems of selected mitigation wetlands. Of particular hydrologic interest is the question of whether clay liners enhance wetland formation by perching precipitation and floodwater or inhibit it by preventing upward seepage. This paper describes a monitoring program and reports early results for the Leading Creek mitigation wetland in north central West Virginia. Piezometers, monitoring wells, and water level recorders have been installed on several transects normal to the stream axis to establish the elevation of the piezometric surface. Stream levels will be measured, and meteorological data is being obtained from nearby weather stations. Hydraulic conductivities will be determined by in situ slug tests and laboratory hydraulic conductivity tests. These data will be used as the basis for hydrologic modeling with the goal of determining the long-term performance of the clay liner.

Recommended Citation Gottgens, Johan F.; Perry, James E.; and al, et, "The Paraguay-Paraná Hidrovía: Protecting the Pantanal with Lessons from the Past: Large-scale channelization of the northern Paraguay-Paraná seems to be on hold, but an ongoing multitude of smaller-scale activities may turn the Pantanal into the next example of the “tyranny of small decisions”" (2001). VIMS Articles. 1475. https://scholarworks.wm.edu/vimsarticles/1475