The widespread reliance on fossil-derived materials has enabled modern manufacturing but has also driven plastic pollution, carbon emissions, and end-of-life waste challenges. Lignocellulosic biomass offers a renewable and biodegradable alternative, yet its intrinsic heterogeneity has historically limited precise materials design. In this Review, we present a unified multiscale engineering framework for lignocellulosic materials, using wood as an archetypal system to illustrate how structure–property–function relationships can be deliberately programmed from the molecular to the macroscopic scale. We synthesize recent advances in hierarchical deconstruction (top-down processing of cell-wall polymers into micro-, nano-, and molecular building blocks) alongside emerging hierarchical assembly strategies enabled by genetic reprogramming of cellulose, hemicellulose, and lignin biosynthesis. This convergence enables unprecedented control over composition, anisotropy, interfaces, and transport pathways, yielding biomass-derived materials with tailored mechanical, optical, barrier, and electrochemical performance. We further discuss how these approaches reduce feedstock heterogeneity, improve process efficiency, and align materials development with circular-economy principles, carbon sequestration, and low-impact manufacturing. By linking molecular-level design and genetic modification to scalable processing routes and device-level functionality, this review positions engineered lignocellulosic materials as credible, high-performance alternatives to fossil-based plastics and composites, with transformative implications for energy, environmental, and sustainable manufacturing applications.

Ancient trees such as Ginkgo biloba exhibit remarkable longevity and sustained physiological vigor despite millennia of environmental stress, yet how aging reprograms their secondary metabolism and chemical defense remains unclear. Here, we investigated age-related epigenetic and metabolic changes across G. biloba individuals aged 1 to 1,070 yr. We identified DEFICIENS AGAMOUS-LIKE 1 (GbDAL1) as a central age-associated regulator of flavonol metabolism. GbDAL1 expression rises progressively with age but is significantly reduced in juvenilized branches; this shift is driven by reduced expression of the DNA methyltransferase chromomethylase2 (GbCMT2), leading to promoter hypomethylation. Restoring GbCMT2 activity reinstates promoter DNA methylation and suppresses GbDAL1 transcription. Functionally, GbDAL1 negatively regulates flavonol biosynthesis by directly repressing the flavonol synthase (GbFLS) gene and inhibiting the transcriptional activity of GbMYBF1, thereby attenuating expression of flavonol pathway genes. Although total flavonol biosynthesis declines with age, metabolite profiling revealed marked accumulation of methylated and prenylated flavonols in ancient trees, suggesting an adaptive metabolic shift toward more stable defensive metabolites. These metabolites, together with diverse terpenoids, phenols and alkaloids, accumulate in the heartwood to form a persistent chemical barrier that supports long-term defense. Collectively, our findings reveal an epigenetically mediated age-metabolite regulatory axis in G. biloba, uncovering a molecular mechanism that links aging to secondary metabolic reprogramming and may contribute to the exceptional longevity and resilience of perennial plants.

Arabidopsis peptide hormones from the C-TERMINALLY ENCODED PEPTIDE (CEP) family and their receptor, CEP RECEPTOR1 (CEPR1), integrate growth and development with environmental cues. Since cereals display anatomical differences to dicots, it is unknown if CEPR1 functions similarly in monocots and dicots. We investigated cereal CEPR1 function by introducing putative barley, rice, or maize CEPR1 orthologs into an Arabidopsis cepr1 mutant to determine if its diverse root, vegetative development, and fecundity phenotypes could be restored. The monocot CEPR1 genes restored Arabidopsis root, shoot, seed phenotypes, and CEP DOWNSTREAM 1 expression. To validate cereal CEPR1 function, we knocked out CEPR1 in barley using CRISPR-Cas9. Barley cepr1 plants had steeper seminal roots, a narrower mature root system, and a severe fecundity defect, comparable to Atcepr1. As Atcepr1 complementation by barley CEPR1 necessitates interaction with native AtCEPs, we tested if Arabidopsis and barley CEPR1 favour interacting with CEPs from either species. AtCEPR1 favoured AtCEP3 due to divergence at the HvCEP N-terminus, whereas HvCEPR1 interacted with both Arabidopsis and barley CEPs. These results reveal CEP receptor function for cereal CEPR1s, developmental roles for barley CEPR1 in root architecture and fecundity, and imply that the CEPR1 pathway is a promising target for improving root architecture in cereals.

Engineering plants with reduced lignin content can result in pleiotropic growth defects. In stems of Arabidopsis plants with reduced expression of hydroxycinnamoyl CoA: shikimate hydroxycinnamoyl transferase (HCT), the plastidial glucose 6-phosphate: phosphate co-transporter GPT2 is highly overexpressed, and this coincides with reduced lignin levels and extensive transcriptional and metabolic reprogramming. To explore the potential relationship between GPT2 expression and lignin accumulation, GPT2 transcript levels were evaluated in a suite of Arabidopsis thaliana and Medicago truncatula lignin-defective lines. We also examined lignin levels and composition, and transcriptomic and metabolic profiles in GPT2 loss-of-function, GPT2 overexpression, and wild-type Arabidopsis plants. Loss of GPT2 had no effect on lignin, but its overexpression caused a decrease in stem lignin levels due to reduced accumulation of both guaiacyl and syringyl lignins and their associated monolignol pools. HCT transcript levels were diminished in 35S-GPT2 lines, indicating a potential transcriptional regulatory connection between lignin biosynthesis and GPT2. Based on our transcriptomic and metabolomic analyses, we suggest that GPT2 operates to balance the flux between the biosynthesis of lignin and light-protective phenylpropanoid derivatives.

Despite lignin having long been viewed as an impediment to the processing of biomass for the production of paper, biofuels, and high-value chemicals, the valorization of lignin to fuels, chemicals, and materials is now clearly recognized as a critical element for the lignocellulosic bioeconomy. However, the intended application for lignin will likely require a preferred lignin composition and form. To that end, effective lignin valorization will require the integration of plant biology, providing optimal feedstocks, with chemical process engineering, providing efficient lignin transformations. Recent advances in our understanding of lignin biosynthesis have shown that lignin structure is extremely diverse and potentially tunable, while simultaneous developments in lignin refining have resulted in the development of several processes that are more agnostic to lignin composition. Here, we review the interface between in planta lignin design and lignin processing and discuss the advances necessary for lignin valorization to become a feature of advanced biorefining.

The mode of transport of lignin monomers to the sites of polymerization in the apoplast remains controversial. C-Lignin is a recently discovered form of lignin found in some seed coats that is composed exclusively of units derived from caffeyl alcohol. RNA-seq and proteome analyses identified a number of transporters co-expressed with C-lignin deposition in the seed coat of Cleome hassleriana. Cloning and influx/efflux analysis assays in yeast identified two low-affinity transporters, ChPLT3 and ChSUC1, that were active with caffeyl alcohol but not with the classical monolignols p-coumaryl, coniferyl, and sinapyl alcohols, consistent with molecular modeling and docking studies. Expression of ChPLT3 in Arabidopsis seedlings enhanced root growth in the presence of caffeyl alcohol, and expression of ChPLT3 and ChSUC1 correlated with lignin C-unit content in hairy roots of Medicago truncatula. We present a model, consistent with phylogenetic and evolutionary considerations, whereby passive caffeyl alcohol transport may be supplemented by hitchhiking on secondary active transporters to ensure the synthesis of C-lignin, and inhibition of synthesis of G-lignin, in the apoplast.

Roots provide the critical interface where plants acquire nutrients and water, but our limited understanding of the genetic controls modulating root system architecture (RSA) in crop species constrains opportunities to develop future cultivars with improved root systems. However, there is vast knowledge of root developmental genes in model plant species, which has the potential to accelerate progress in crops with more complex genomes, particularly given that genome editing protocols are now available for most species. PIN-FORMED2 ( PIN2 ) encodes a root specific polar auxin transporter, where its absence resulted in roots being unable to orient themselves using gravity, producing a significantly wider root system. To explore the role of PIN2 in a cereal crop, we used CRISPR/Cas9 editing to knockout of PIN2 in barley ( Hordeum vulgare ). Like Arabidopsis, the roots of barley pin2 loss-of-function mutants displayed an agravitropic response at seedling growth stages, resulting in a significantly shallower and wider root system at later growth stages. Notably, despite the significant change in RSA, there was no change in shoot architecture or total shoot biomass. We discuss the future challenges and opportunities to harness the PIN2 pathway to optimise RSA in crops for a range of production scenarios without a shoot trade-off. ### Competing Interest Statement The authors have declared no competing interest.

Mythology is replete with good and evil shapeshifters, who, by definition, display great adaptability and assume many different forms-with several even turning themselves into trees. Cell walls certainly fit this definition as they can undergo subtle or dramatic changes in structure, assume many shapes, and perform many functions. In this review, we cover the evolution of knowledge of the structures, biosynthesis, and functions of the 5 major cell wall polymer types that range from deceptively simple to fiendishly complex. Along the way, we recognize some of the colorful historical figures who shaped cell wall research over the past 100 years. The shapeshifter analogy emerges more clearly as we examine the evolving proposals for how cell walls are constructed to allow growth while remaining strong, the complex signaling involved in maintaining cell wall integrity and defense against disease, and the ways cell walls adapt as they progress from birth, through growth to maturation, and in the end, often function long after cell death. We predict the next century of progress will include deciphering cell type-specific wall polymers; regulation at all levels of polymer production, crosslinks, and architecture; and how walls respond to developmental and environmental signals to drive plant success in diverse environments. This review provides a historical context for the processes by which plant cell wall structures are created, assemble, sense, and respond to signals and change during progression from birth to death.

Over the past century, early advances in understanding the identity of the chemicals that collectively form a living plant have led scientists to deeper investigations exploring where these molecules localize, how they are made, and why they are synthesized in the first place. Many small molecules are specific to the plant kingdom and have been termed plant secondary metabolites, despite the fact that they can play primary and essential roles in plant structure, development, and response to the environment. The past 100 yr have witnessed elucidation of the structure, function, localization, and biosynthesis of selected plant secondary metabolites. Nevertheless, many mysteries remain about the vast diversity of chemicals produced by plants and their roles in plant biology. From early work characterizing unpurified plant extracts, to modern integration of ‘omics technology to discover genes in metabolite biosynthesis and perception, research in plant (bio)chemistry has produced knowledge with substantial benefits for society, including human medicine and agricultural biotechnology. Here, we review the history of this work and offer suggestions for future areas of exploration. We also highlight some of the recently developed technologies that are leading to ongoing research advances.

Glutathione S-transferases (GSTs) constitute a protein superfamily encoded by a large gene family and play a crucial role in plant growth and development. However, their precise functions in wood plant responses to abiotic stress are not fully understood. In this study, we isolated a Phi class glutathione S-transferase-encoding gene, PtrGSTF8, from poplar (Populus alba×P. glandulosa), which is significantly up-regulated under salt stress. Moreover, compared with wild-type (WT) plants, transgenic tobacco plants exhibited significant salt stress tolerance. Under salt stress, PtrGSTF8-overexpressing tobacco plants showed a significant increase in plant height and root length, and less accumulation of reactive oxygen species. In addition, these transgenic tobacco plants exhibited higher superoxide dismutase, peroxidase, and catalase activities and reduced malondialdehyde content compared with WT plants. Quantitative real-time PCR experiments showed that the overexpression of PtrGSTF8 increased the expression of numerous genes related to salt stress. Furthermore, PtrMYB108, a MYB transcription factor involved in salt resistance in poplar, was found to directly activate the promoter of PtrGSTF8, as demonstrated by yeast one-hybrid assays and luciferase complementation assays. Taken together, these findings suggest that poplar PtrGSTF8 contributes to enhanced salt tolerance and confers multiple growth advantages when overexpressed in tobacco.

Since 1980 landfalling continental US hurricanes have caused over one trillion dollars in damage (Consumer Price Index-adjusted) with damage increases growing exponentially since 1900. In the context of future risk mitigation, understanding these loss trends and their drivers through time is of great importance. In order to understand hurricane loss trends through time we use “normalization” so that the direct economic losses at the time can be understood in the context of contemporary societal conditions. Our research provides an update to normalized continental US hurricane economic losses from 1900 to 2022. It also provides updates to the existing methodology. The 2022 normalization methodology finds Hurricane Katrina as the costliest historical hurricane since 1900 at US$228 billion. The top 50 hurricanes resulted in over US$2.8 trillion in economic losses. The primary drivers of observed increases in hurricane-related damage are upsurges in inflation, coastal population, regional wealth, and higher replacement costs. These trends are especially impactful for some rapidly growing coastal regions along the U.S. Gulf and Southeast Coasts. With projected future coastal growth and population trends, in addition to any climate change influence on hurricane behavior, we may expect to see higher hurricane losses than previously observed.

Proanthocyanidins (PAs) are natural flavan-3-ol polymers that contribute protection to plants under biotic and abiotic stress, benefits to human health, and bitterness and astringency to food products. They are also potential targets for carbon sequestration for climate mitigation. In recent years, from model species to commercial crops, research has moved closer to elucidating the flux control and channeling, subunit biosynthesis and polymerization, transport mechanisms, and regulatory networks involved in plant PA metabolism. This review extends the conventional understanding with recent findings that provide new insights to address lingering questions and focus strategies for manipulating PA traits in plants.

Open AccessMoreSectionsView PDF ToolsAdd to favoritesDownload CitationsTrack Citations ShareShare onFacebookTwitterLinked InRedditEmail Cite this article Dixon Richard 2023Comments from the incoming EditorPhil. Trans. R. Soc. B3782023000220230002http://doi.org/10.1098/rstb.2023.0002SectionOpen AccessEditorialComments from the incoming Editor Richard Dixon Richard Dixon http://orcid.org/0000-0001-8393-9408 University of North Texas, BioDiscovery Institute and Department of Biological Sciences, Denton, TX 76203 [email protected] Contribution: Writing – original draft, Writing – review & editing Google Scholar Find this author on PubMed Richard Dixon Richard Dixon http://orcid.org/0000-0001-8393-9408 University of North Texas, BioDiscovery Institute and Department of Biological Sciences, Denton, TX 76203 [email protected] Contribution: Writing – original draft, Writing – review & editing Google Scholar Find this author on PubMed Published:20 February 2023https://doi.org/10.1098/rstb.2023.0002 I am excited to assume the role of Editor of Philosophical Transactions B following the end of the Editorship term of Professor John Pickett CBE, FRS, with the last issue of 2022. I have known John for many years, and his infectious engagement with all things scientific very much personifies the interdisciplinary focus of the journal. He will be a hard act to follow, although I suspect we will be in touch a lot! After taking partial retirement from the University of North Texas in October 2021, I felt that I had the time to be involved in more editorial work. But for what journal? My three years as Editorial Board member for Phil Trans B made me realize that working with this journal would be a very different experience from handling manuscripts for most specialist journals, or even a general interest journal such as PNAS, on whose board I currently serve. There is much to be said for learning new things as you get older, and the broad, interdisciplinary scope of Phil Trans B will certainly make sure that happens. For those who do not know me, just a little about my background. I am a plant biochemist who graduated from Oxford, did two years postdoctoral work in Cambridge, and then spent 9 years on the faculty in Biochemistry at Royal Holloway College, University of London. In 1988 I threw caution to the wind and assumed the position of Director of Plant Biology at the Noble Foundation, a private research institute in Ardmore, Oklahoma, dedicated to promoting good agricultural practices. This turned out to be a very good decision, and for 25 years the Foundation was a wonderful place for both basic and applied plant research. It was there that I saw first-hand the power of interdisciplinary research to translate basic science to benefits for the ultimate end users, the farmers and ranchers who were supported by the Foundation's Agricultural Division. In 2013 I left the Foundation to become Distinguished Research Professor in the Department of Biological Sciences at the University of North Texas, joining a group of excellent plant scientists and founding the BioDiscovery Institute (https://bdi.unt.edu/) in 2015. I am now Professor Emeritus at UNT, maintaining a much smaller laboratory mainly remotely from my home in Tulsa, Oklahoma. My research interests centre on the biochemistry, molecular biology and metabolic engineering of plant natural product pathways and their implications for agriculture and human health, and the engineering of lignocellulosic biomass for the improvement of forage and bioenergy feedstocks. Over the years, I have worked in several large interdisciplinary research teams addressing questions from overcoming biomass recalcitrance for processing to fuels and chemicals to understanding metabolic conversions of dietary plant flavonoids in relation to amelioration of cognitive dysfunction. I have enjoyed and appreciated how collaborations beyond one's own area of expertise or even interest can result in gains in knowledge and understanding that would not otherwise occur, and such synergy is clearly a major feature of Phil. Trans. B. My first and only experience in publishing in Phil. Trans. B. was an article I co-authored in 1986 in the proceedings of a discussion meeting on differential gene expression in plants. Just being there at the Royal Society with many of the leaders of the field was an amazing experience for a new faculty member. Re-reading the article now makes apparent the incredible advances in technology in the biological sciences over the past 30–40 years. Back in 1986 we were asking the right questions but had limited tools to help us answer them. Now we seem to have a different problem—the age of 'big data' has made it possible to generate, both rapidly and cheaply, far more information than one could have dreamed of back in the day. In some cases this has led to spectacular advances, but it can also lead some into blind alleys in which the wood is not seen for the trees. I very much like the focus of Phil. Trans. B on questions of deep biological significance. My philosophy for the journal is simple—to maintain the high standards of quality, thematic diversity, author/editor diversity, and international collaboration that the journal currently enjoys. Phil. Trans. B is clearly seen as the premier place for review articles and themed issues by a number of communities and has an enthusiastic user/reader base in these areas that should be maintained. I do not have a specific agenda for changes in direction, other to than to ensure that we actively encourage issues across the whole spectrum of interest areas covered by the journal, including the climate : agriculture interface mentioned by Professor Pickett in his concluding editorial. The present uncertain political climate further highlights the value of a journal such as Phil. Trans. B. International collaborations are suffering in some cases from heightened suspicion of scientists' intentions from their representative governments. More isolationist policies in many countries have reduced funding for international collaborations. These issues highlight the need for the journal to maintain, or increase, the diversity of nationalities in its thematic issues; even if transfer of materials and personnel across international boundaries is undergoing a reduction, transfer of ideas and synthesis of new concepts among the broader scientific community should be free and receive continued encouragement. Furthermore, as the climate crisis and changing political and social norms affect, in different ways and extents, countries and societies across the world, the journal should continue to encourage scientists from under-represented countries to participate in the themed issues. I am looking forward to working with the excellent Editorial Team at the Royal Society and also to taking the opportunity of getting back to visit my home country after the restrictions of the Covid pandemic. I urge readers to come forward with suggestions for theme issues across the whole subject area of the journal—we are always looking for new topics and all scientists are welcome to submit a proposal. Please visit the journal's website for more information. Next Article VIEW FULL TEXT DOWNLOAD PDF FiguresRelatedReferencesDetails This Issue10 April 2023Volume 378Issue 1874Discussion meeting 'Collective behaviour through time' organized and edited by Christos C. Ioannou and Kate L. Laskowski Article InformationDOI:https://doi.org/10.1098/rstb.2023.0002PubMed:36802784Published by:Royal SocietyPrint ISSN:0962-8436Online ISSN:1471-2970History: Manuscript received11/01/2023Manuscript accepted11/01/2023Published online20/02/2023Published in print10/04/2023 License:© 2023 The Authors.Published by the Royal Society under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution License http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/, which permits unrestricted use, provided the original author and source are credited. Citations and impact Subjectsbehaviour

Proanthocyanidins (PAs), flavonoid polymers involved in plant defense, are also beneficial to human health and ruminant nutrition. To date, there is little evidence for accumulation of PAs in maize (Zea mays), although maize makes anthocyanins and possesses the key enzyme of the PA pathway, anthocyanidin reductase (ANR). Here, we explore whether there is a functional PA biosynthesis pathway in maize using a combination of analytical chemistry and genetic approaches. The endogenous PA biosynthetic machinery in maize preferentially produces the unusual PA precursor (+)-epicatechin, as well as 4β-(S-cysteinyl)-catechin, as potential PA starter and extension units. Uncommon procyanidin dimers with (+)-epicatechin as starter unit are also found. Expression of soybean (Glycine max) anthocyanidin reductase 1 (ANR1) in maize seeds increases the levels of 4β-(S-cysteinyl)-epicatechin and procyanidin dimers mainly using (-)-epicatechin as starter units. Introducing a Sorghum bicolor transcription factor (SbTT2) specifically regulating PA biosynthesis into a maize inbred deficient in anthocyanin biosynthesis activates both anthocyanin and PA biosynthesis pathways, suggesting conservation of the PA regulatory machinery across species. Our data support the divergence of PA biosynthesis across plant species and offer perspectives for future agricultrural applications in maize.

Altering the content or composition of the cell wall polymer lignin is a favored approach to valorize lignin toward biomaterial and chemical production in the biorefinery. However, modifying lignin or cellulose in transgenic plants can induce expression of defense responses and negatively affect growth. Through genetic screening for suppressors of defense gene induction in the low lignin ccr1-3 mutant of Arabidopsis thaliana , we found that loss of function of the receptor-like kinase FERONIA, although not restoring growth, affected cell wall remodeling and blocked release of elicitor-active pectic polysaccharides as a result of the ccr1-3 mutation. Loss of function of multiple wall-associated kinases prevented perception of these elicitors. The elicitors are likely heterogeneous, with tri-galacturonic acid the smallest but not necessarily the most active component. Engineering of plant cell walls will require development of ways to bypass endogenous pectin signaling pathways.