PurposeThe purpose of this study is to study bank deserts, their location and characteristics, using pre- and post-pandemic data, with aggregation to communities (i.e. PUMAs) with approximately 100,000 residents.Design/Methodology/ApproachThe study uses traditional FDIC data to measure bank deserts at the census tract level in 2015 and 2023, correcting for population density and land area, with 10% cutoffs, separately for metro and rural areas. Deserts are aggregated to PUMAs and compared for population characteristics drawn from the American Community Survey. Comparisons across counties and states are provided.FindingsBank deserts expanded by approximately one-third from 2015 to 2023, while the characteristics of deserts remained largely unchanged. In rural areas, bank deserts are consistently related to socioeconomic disadvantage, such as poverty, a lack of income, ethnic/racial minorities and Indian reservations, but the pattern is less consistent in metropolitan areas, where they are negatively related to African Americans and Hispanics and unrelated to poverty. Indeed, numerous deserts exist in relatively affluent metro areas.Research limitations/implicationsThe PUMA-level approach allowed identification of bank deserts in more granular communities relative to, for example, counties or cities. As a result, although most severe metro bank deserts appear in Southern states, two notable 2023 deserts were found in the Bronx, NYC. Of greater import, in contrast to some earlier studies, we find that metro deserts are not significantly related to disadvantage, likely due to the expansion of online banking.Social implicationsWe conclude that efforts to counter bank deserts should target deserts in disadvantaged communities rather than bank deserts in general.Originality/ValueThe PUMA-level approach allowed identification of bank deserts in more granular communities relative to, e.g. counties or cities. As a result, although most severe metro bank deserts appear in Southern states, two notable 2023 deserts were found in the Bronx, NYC. Of greater import, in contrast to some earlier studies, we found that metro deserts are not significantly related to disadvantage, likely due to the expansion of on-line banking.

Purpose The study aims to analyze the roles of poverty and African American status in terms of vulnerability to tornado damages and barriers to recovery afterward. Design/methodology/approach Using five decades of county-level data on tornadoes, the authors test whether economic damages from tornadoes are correlated with vulnerability (proxied by poverty and African American status) and wealth (proxied by median income and educational attainment), controlling for tornado risk. A multinomial logistic difference-in-difference (DID) estimator is used to analyze long-run effects of tornadoes in terms of displacement (reduced proportions of the poor and African Americans), abandonment (increased proportions of those groups) and neither or both. Findings Controlling for tornado risk, poverty and African American status are linked to greater tornado damages, as is wealth. Absent tornadoes, displacement and abandonment are both more likely to occur in urban settings and communities with high levels of vulnerability, while abandonment is more likely to occur in wealthy communities, consistent with on-going forces of segregation. Tornado damages significantly increase abandonment in vulnerable communities, thereby increasing the prevalence of poor African Americans in those communities. Therefore, the authors conclude that tornadoes contribute to on-going processes generating inequality by poverty/race. Originality/value The current paper is the first study connecting tornado damages to race and poverty. It is also the first study finding that tornadoes contribute to long-term processes of segregation and inequality.

The definition of individual resilience remains ambiguous. This article responds to that ambiguity by first deriving a definition of individual resilience from conservation of resources (COR) theory. Accordingly, to the extent individuals have sufficient resources and behave according to two key principles of COR theory, they will exhibit resilience in response to significant adversity. A second development builds upon the COR distinction between resources deployed in response to adversity which are resource-preserving as distinct from resource-enhancing, which generate what are here labeled acceptance resilience and strategic resilience, respectively. It is proposed that behaviors associated with acceptance resilience support relative continuity of environments, relationships, and life goals, with strategic resilience behaviors often involving changing environments, relationships, or life goals. Acceptance resilience is related to earlier COR understandings of resilience and relevant resources, while strategic resilience requires distinct or additional resources. Individuals demonstrating the two types of resilience will diverge in terms of openness to new experiences, persistence, loss aversion, and the valuation of future resources. It is further proposed that acceptance resilience is more common than strategic resilience and that organizations which find resilience valuable will tend to support acceptance resilience, in part because strategic resilience may generate turnover in response to adversity. The analysis addresses related issues, including coping, career change, burnout, as well as teams and organizations. Implications for theory, practice, and future research conclude the work.

Data associated with the Home Mortgage Disclosure Act (HMDA) are often studied for evidence of discrimination in terms of minority applicants or for home location in minority neighborhoods, with mixed results. The present analysis utilizes a data set covering 2014-2016, combining characteristics of home location and applicants from the HMDA data with information on depositor characteristics from the Federal Insurance Deposit Corporation's Summary of Deposits data and the Census Bureau's American Community Survey. Consistent with predictions from the red-lining literature, loan acceptance rates are adversely influenced by high minority locations, although the effect is larger for minority applicants. The relationship banking literature predicts that community banks will yield higher rates of loan acceptance, and the results support that hypothesis. That same literature suggests that familiarity in terms of similar race/ethnicity characteristics for depositors and home location or loan applicants will yield a loan acceptance advantage; and that hypothesis is not supported. Subsidiary analyses suggest that market competition improves loan acceptance rates for minority applicants, consistent with models of discrimination. Additionally, minority depositors are associated positively with loan acceptance rates, which may reflect higher levels of bank risk, and a risk premium, in those markets.

A recent study by Abram Bergson shows that socialism significantly reduces productivity. We replicate that study after including an unemployment variable to capture work discipline effects in capitalist countries. The results suggest that unemployment is a cause of greater productivity in capitalist countries.

Purpose The purpose of this paper is to identify bank deserts in the USA in 2009 and 2015, separately for inner city, suburban, and rural areas. It also identifies correlations between bank deserts, population characteristics, market competition, and payday lending restrictions, both cross-sectionally and over time. Design/methodology/approach FDIC data on bank office locations are used to identify bank deserts, defined as the 5 percent of census tracts with the greatest distance from the centroid to the nearest office. Those data are matched to both American Community Survey data to identify population characteristics, to a list of states with payday lending prohibitions, and to levels of market competition. An alternative measure of bank deserts corrects for population density. Geography is analyzed, mean characteristics compared, and random effects regressions capture static and dynamic correlates. Findings Population density explains approximately half of bank distance variance. Bank deserts appear more often in southern and western states, and expanded significantly in inner cities while contracting in rural areas. Regression results suggest that African Americans were overall and increasingly likely to live in bank deserts and Native Americans were overall more likely to live in rural bank deserts. Rural poverty is linked to bank deserts, and the effects of competition are complex. Practical implications The space for policy intervention exists in African American inner cities and Native American rural communities. Originality/value The relative measure of bank deserts is novel, as are dynamic estimates and random effects analysis of correlates.

U.S. Government support for minority owned banks (MOBs) dates to the late 1960s. Evidence through the early 1990s suggested these banks are relatively inefficient. This study updates that research, using Stochastic Frontier Analysis (SFA) and panel data from 2003 to 2014 on minority owned banks and other banks. It is, as far as we know, the first such study to exclude outliers in SFA estimation, while recovering the outliers for efficiency estimation. Initial results identify a disruption in cost efficiency during 2008, with statistically distinct regimes for 2003–2007 and 2009–2014. Including recovered observations alters the patterns of MOB efficiency in significant ways, and leads us to conclude that current MOB inefficiency is mainly limited to Asian American owned and Multi-racial and minority serving banks. Tests for the effects of government deposits under a U.S. Treasury program suggest these did not adversely effect efficiency among covered MOBs, but may have improved survival rates for those MOBs subsequent to the financial collapse.

Minority-owned banks (MOBs) are small banks, which often serve disadvantaged communities of color, and failed at high rates after the financial collapse. The U.S. Census and FDIC data are used to analyse bank failures for 2009–2014, with predictors from 2008, using logistic regression for estimation. Failure rates were high among Black and Asian American–owned banks; these are related to bank failures in African American communities and concentration in commercial real estate lending; policy responses to the collapse were generally ineffective for small banks. We conclude that policy support for MOBs operating in disadvantaged communities of color is warranted.

BACKGROUNDAn aging population has increased the prevalence of multigenerational caregiving (MGC), defined as unpaid care for an adult while having a dependent child in the household. Policymakers are simultaneously promoting labor force attachment in response to population aging, which may conflict with MGC status.OBJECTIVEThis research provides estimates of the probability of MGC status and its relationship to labor force attachment.METHODSA balanced panel of respondents from nine waves (2005-2013) of the Household, Income and Labour Dynamics in Australia (HILDA) survey data has been used to estimate point-in-time and lifetime probabilities of MGC status for women and for men, and rates of labor force participation and part-time employment prior to, during, and after MGC status.RESULTSFew adult women (2.3%) and men (1.1%) report MGC status at any point in time. Estimated lifetime probabilities of MGC status are 57.1% for women and 34.6% for men, and rates are higher for women and men out of the labor force pre-MGC status. Comparing pre- and post-MGC periods, women's labor force participation rises by an estimated 9 percentage points, mainly due to an increase in part-time employment.CONCLUSIONA majority of Australian women and many Australian men can expect to take on multigenerational caregiving responsibilities during their lifetime. While long-term labor force participation is not reduced by these responsibilities, they may increase the concentration of women in part-time employment.

Healthcare is a sector where investments in information technology (IT) have been found to be associated with improvements in the quality of care, efficiency, and safety. Prior studies have not asked whether the quality of IT is also associated with improved work–life balance for employees. This study addresses that question using the Job Demands-Resources model and a longitudinal sample of 11,140 physicians in Australia. Controlling for a variety of factors that may also influence work–life balance, and using diverse specifications, the reported quality of IT services is positively associated with work–life balance. The measured effects of IT support are smaller than those for long and unpredictable work hours, but similar to those for many other job demands and resources, such as colleague support, complex patients, or part-time employment for women physicians. Implications for HR researchers and practitioners are discussed in conclusion.

Purpose– The purpose of this paper is to analyze interest-bearing checking (IC) account policies, including the monthly fee, and minima to avoid the fee or to earn interest, as shrouded equilibria in the sense that low-income depositors subsidize higher income depositors. The authors ask whether behavior is consistent with low-income depositors being myopic, and analyze the role of competition and bank size.Design/methodology/approach– IC policy data from RateWatch cover more than 600 single-market banks from 2008-2012, and are matched to FDIC SOD data and call report data for testing. Hypotheses assuming low-income depositors are myopic are tested, as are the effects of bank size and competition with local market and multi-market banks.Findings– IC policies represent locally shrouded equilibria, with low-income depositors subsidizing higher income depositors up to a well-defined threshold, with depositors above that threshold subsiding all other customers. IC policy patterns are consistent with low-income customers being myopic, with banks generally avoiding drawing their attention, attempting to confuse them, and with policies consistent with a present orientation among low-income depositors. Local market competition does not meet the traditional expectation of favoring consumers. Additionally, larger banks report higher fees and minima, with the difference growing during the period.Social implications– IC policies have not received regulatory attention, yet the fees likely fall mainly on low-income individuals, and may continue to grow.Originality/value– The analysis of IC policies is novel, as is the locally shrouded equilibrium model, and findings regarding competition.

This article analyses noninterest checking (NIC) account fees using a unique data set covering 11875 observations on 1880 banks from 2008 to 2012. These data identify whether the bank has free or fee checking on NIC accounts and, where relevant, the fee and minimum balance to avoid the fee. Appealing to shrouded equilibrium theory, we hypothesize that banks, and particularly small banks, will avoid drawing the attention of myopic, low-income types by having stable policies, or will attempt to confuse depositors with contradictory policy shifts in the fee and minimum balance requirements. Competition and small bank size should favour consumers, but the meaning of favour' is complicated by large depositors and the banks subsidizing small depositors with NIC accounts.The results support the avoid attention hypothesis, particularly for single-market banks, and weakly support the confuse depositors hypothesis. The largest banks, including three too big to fail banks, are most responsive to competition, with single-market banks far less responsive. Competition may be responsible for a dramatic decline in free checking among the largest banks, and substantial increases in minimum balances for those banks, since these effectively reduced subsidies. Simultaneously, single-market banks became more likely to offer free checking.

This paper presents evidence regarding three types of ATM fees: foreign fees charged for use of a non-bank ATM by the bank’s customers, surcharges for use of bank ATMs by non-customers, and balance inquiry charges for the bank’s own customers. It is hypothesized that, among single market banks, fees will be positively correlated with bank size, a lack of market competition, market penetration by multimarket banks, banks serving low income communities, and Black owned banks (BOBs) and Hispanic owned banks (HOBs), although banks may try to confuse depositors with fees that exhibit a low correlation, or may set low surcharges as part of a loss leader strategy. A 2013 sample of approximately 1500 single market banks, including 21 Black owned banks (BOBs) and 19 Hispanic owned banks (HOBs) is used for correlation and regression analyses. It is found that BOBs charge an average of $0.50 higher foreign fees, and are more likely to charge balance inquiry fees. We also find that larger banks tend to charge higher fees, and that banks may set higher fees where they serve disadvantaged communities of color. Surprisingly, market competition is never significantly associated with ATM fees, and there is minimal correlation across fees, and both results are consistent with banks setting fees strategically to confuse customers.

This article discusses five major sources of wage differentials. These include the skills required by jobs, such as complexity or investments in human capital; job location, which can yield differences for urban as opposed to rural locations; the effects of job characteristics, including some jobs involving dangerous conditions; discrimination or nepotism related to gender, race/ethnicity or family status; and rents due to labor unions or governmental policies such as a minimum wage.

A major criticism of the American Time Use Survey (ATUS) is that, with the exception of childcare, the survey does not systematically collect information about activities respondents did while they were doing something else. The ATUS focuses on collecting information about respondents' main (or primary) activities; when respondents volunteer that they were doing secondary activities, this information is recorded by the interviewers, but it is not coded and does not appear in the final data. This study is an analysis of these additional secondary activity data from 2006. The study provides descriptive information about who reported secondary activities and the activities they reported. It also quantifies the secondary activity time that was spent in nonmarket work and examines whether the omission of these data impacts valuations of nonmarket work. Finally, it evaluates the quality of the voluntarily-reported secondary activity data.

Time diary data are used to simulate the effects of parental leave and reduced hours arrangements on childcare time among parents of infants. Estimates suggest that coupled fathers would apply approximately 70 percent of working time reductions under leave or reduced hours to childcare. Both coupled and single mothers translate working time reductions into childcare at higher rates. The analysis highlights inequalities across lines of gender, marital status, and socioeconomic status associated with existing policies and suggests policy innovations to both raise parental investments in childcare time and reduce levels of inequality.

Ceci and Williams (1) concluded that women's underrepresentation in science is not attributable to sex discrimination. They instead discussed causal factors, such as women preferring people as opposed to mathematically oriented fields, women's lesser abilities at the top of the mathematics performance distribution, and women's preferences for the performance of child care.

BACKGROUND:The Special Supplemental Nutrition Program for Women, Infants, and Children (WIC) has provided free infant formula while simultaneously attempting to promote breastfeeding. This article analyzes the cost structure of WIC food packages in relation to breastfeeding.METHODS:The analysis provides 2010 estimates for the cost and utilization of each of the WIC food packages for pairs of infants and their mothers. New food packages were introduced in all states by 2009 and were intended to promote breastfeeding. The analysis accounts for the composition of the new food packages, although utilization projections predate the implementation of those packages, so current rates of breastfeeding may be understated.RESULTS:The projections suggest that just under 74% of infant participants are estimated to receive food packages associated with exclusive formula use. Relative to food packages for mother-infant pairs who exclusively breastfeed, the exclusive formula packages are around 25% more expensive for infants in the first 6 months of life but 64% cheaper during the second 6 months.CONCLUSIONS:Simulations suggest that the achievement of the Healthy People 2020 breastfeeding targets among WIC participants would have a minimal effect on food package costs. Simulations for extreme cases (e.g., all fully breastfeeding for 1 year) suggest that food package costs could be reduced by 18% if all WIC mother-infant pairs engaged in exclusive breastfeeding for the first 6 months, followed by exclusive formula use in the next 6 months. A 38% reduction could be achieved if all mother-infant pairs received the partial breastfeeding packages.

Bias avoidance behaviour arises when individuals minimize or hide family commitments to achieve career success. Bias avoidance behaviour can be divided into productive types of behaviour that free up more time and energy for a career and unproductive ones types that involve hiding or covering up caregiving commitments. This article compares reports of bias avoidance from chemistry and English faculty in US and Australian colleges and universities. The analyses reveal behaviour in Australia that is similar to that in the USA together with some evidence of higher levels of bias avoidance among women and higher levels of unproductive bias avoidance in the Australian sample. It is concluded from this cross‐national study that bias avoidance is both pervasive and gendered across the two countries. However, cultural differences are also important and strategies to reduce bias avoidance behaviour should account for these differences.