Globally, pollinating insects face significant pressure, largely due to intensively managed agricultural systems. There has been considerable focus on the provision of resources for pollinators in agricultural landscapes, but without understanding how existing farmland habitats affect pollinators there is a risk these conservation actions could fail. The aim of this study was to explore the relationships between the quantity, diversity, and quality of on-farm habitats with pollinator communities. To meet this aim, pollinator, floral and habitat features were assessed at twenty-nine sites, encompassing both livestock and crop systems, at a range of farming intensities, in two regions of Ireland. Results showed that the three main taxonomic pollinator groups (hoverflies, social bees, and solitary bees) were inconsistent in their responses to habitat and environmental variables. Hoverflies were negatively associated with farms with increasing amounts of linear feature and fewer drainage ditches, whereas bumblebees were positively associated with crop farms and the number of grassy margins, drainage ditches and hedgerows at a site. Solitary bees were negatively associated with crop farms and positively associated with high floral species richness. At a species level, community analysis showed that within taxonomic groups, individual species responded differently to environmental variables. This study demonstrates that different farm types and habitat features impact pollinator groups differently. One-size does not fit all, thus on-farm conservation actions should be designed with knowledge of taxon-specific responses to maximise benefits. The quantity and diversity of essential habitats are important along with the quality of those features in terms of their capacity to provide sufficient resources for pollinators.

ABSTRACT: High Nature Value (HNV) forests support biodiversity and the provision of ecosystem services. In recognition of this role, a framework for defining and identifying HNV forest in Ireland has recently been developed and applied to Irish National Forest Inventory (NFI) forest plots. This study aimed to identify different types of HNV forest, using available variables collated by the NFI for the same plots identified as HNV forest. A multiple factor analysis and cluster analyses was performed. A spatial analysis exercise was conducted to quantify the number of HNV forest plots that overlap with designated/protected areas in Ireland. Three primary types and four subtypes of HNV forest were identified. Tree species richness, fern species richness and planting year, woodland subtype, woodland habitat type and nativeness of tree species were the most important variables explaining the difference among the three main forest types identified. Areas with distinct ecological characteristics can fall within the same HNV score range and only a small variation in naturalness is seen among HNV forest types. Results show that less than 50% of NFI HNV forest plots overlapped with designated areas/protected habitats. Results of this work can be an important step for the design of targeted conservation policies.

High Nature Value (HNV) farmland and forest systems play a vital role in supporting biodiversity and delivery of ecosystem services. Estimates of HNV forest area and distribution in the European Union (EU) are rarely conducted, despite having been a requirement of Rural Development Programmes. This work represents the first attempt to identify and estimate the area of HNV forest in the Republic of Ireland in a repeatable and transparent way. Relevant geo-datasets available for Ireland were collated and analysed. We investigated whether the datasets contained information on the indicators used in a recently-developed Nature Value (NV) index, and explored the potential of proxy indicators to determine the likelihood of a mapped area of forest being HNV. Based on these analyses, a likelihood map of the distribution of forest in different NV categories was produced and an accuracy assessment conducted. Results from this study suggest that HNV forest accounts for approximately 1 % of the Irish land area, or 8 % of the total forest area. Accuracy assessments indicated substantial agreement between the likelihood map classifications and the calculated NV status of National Forest Inventory plots. The methodology presented here could also be applied to existing similar datasets to estimate the extent and distribution of HNV forest in other regions. The mapped output provides a likelihood of a forest area being HNV and can provide evidence to inform the development of forest conservation policies.

High Nature Value (HNV) forests contribute to maintaining European biodiversity and public good supply. This study aimed to a) develop an objective and quantitative Nature Value (NV) index for the identification of HNV forests in the Republic of Ireland; and b) apply and validate the index using available data from the Irish National Forest Inventory (NFI).Following recent European definitions of HNV forest, a six-step framework was adapted from literature and used for assessing forest naturalness. The reference forest (in an Irish context) and its naturalness traits were first described. Six indicators were selected to construct a NV index and three categories (low, medium and high NV) were defined based on the range of NV scores. Using data from the Irish NFI, the approach was implemented by calculating the indicators' values and the NV score for 1,676 forest plots. The selected indicators were tested for redundancy and the NV index was validated with available floristic variables and with forest sub-type classes. A sensitivity analysis was conducted on the weighting values of the indicators.Approximately 11% of the NFI plots were categorised as HNV. There was no redundancy between the selected indicators. The NV index was significantly positively correlated with data from the floristic variables collated by the NFI. The averages of the floristic variables per NV category were significantly different. NFI plots classified as HNV had a higher percentage of natural/semi-natural forest types than medium NV and low NV plots. The sensitivity analyses showed little effect of changes to the indicators' weighting values on a) the correlation co-efficients between the floristic variables' data and the new NV scores obtained and b) on the proportion of natural/semi-natural forests in HNV plots.This work provides an approach for the development of a NV index to identify HNV forests in a European country following the naturalness concept exclusively. The selected indicators and their weighting should be tailored to each country's particular conditions, especially due to potential differences in the reference level of naturalness of forests and differences within NFIs.

Some pollinator species found in agricultural areas are strongly dependent on surrounding areas of natural or semi-natural habitats to nest and/or forage. Landscape structure has been shown to influence pollinator communities and understanding how landscape structure affects farmland pollinators can improve Agri-Environment Schemes (AES). This study explored how landscape metrics affect the presence of pollinators associated with woody vegetation in farmland in the Republic of Ireland. Two study regions were selected, and pollinators were collected using pan traps placed in farm linear features. Hoverfly and bee species were selected based on their body size and association with woody vegetation. Relevant landscape structure metrics were extracted from around each trap and used to develop explanatory models for the abundance of pollinators. The total abundance of target species was relatively low but correlated with three explanatory variables: the connectivity of the linear feature to woodlands; the distance from the trap to the closest woodland; and edge density. Hoverfly and bee abundance data, when analysed separately, showed significant differences within regions. Results seem to indicate that incentivising the connectivity of farm linear features to surrounding woodland patches and increasing optimal habitat availability in agricultural landscapes could benefit woodland specialists. This information is helpful to improving AES design.

Stone walls are ubiquitous field boundaries used to restrict livestock movement or to separate property. Bryophytes and lichens are often the dominant vegetation in dry stone walls and are strongly affected by local microhabitat characteristics. Bryophytes and lichens related metrics can be used to define habitat quality of stone walls.The current study assessed how richness and cover of bryophytes and macrolichens in dry stone walls related to each other and how different environmental variables and farm management descriptors determined richness and cover of both groups in dry stone walls. Bryophytes and macrolichens were sampled in stone walls on sixteen farms across a management intensity gradient in Ireland. Bryophyte cover correlated positively and significantly with bryophyte richness and macrolichen cover and richness, and can thus be used to assess stone walls quality. Farm management intensity emerged as the variable most strongly related with species richness of bryophytes and cover of both groups. Altitude also emerged as a strong predictor of both groups' richness and cover. This study provides a novel perspective on stone wall habitat quality and results indicate that by promoting extensive farming it is possible to increase stone walls quality.

While the value of linear farm habitats for the protection and enhancement of farmland biodiversity in general is known, less is understood about their contribution to Diptera, especially those with different ecological requirements. In this study, we examined the impact of a range of linear farm habitats in agricultural grassland on Syrphidae and Sciomyzidae (Diptera) both of which provide important ecosystem services. Species richness and abundance for each family were measured across five different linear habitat types (dense and open hedgerows with/without adjacent watercourses and watercourses only). While dense hedgerows with adjacent watercourses showed the greatest numbers of Syrphidae species and individuals, open hedgerows with adjacent watercourses had significantly more Sciomyzidae species and individuals than dense hedgerows without watercourses or open hedgerows only. Syrphidae species richness was significantly correlated with the flowering plant species richness of linear habitats, while Sciomyzidae species richness was correlated with a habitat quality score for grasslands adjacent to the linear habitats. Overall, Syrphidae and Sciomyzidae species richness and community composition are shown to reflect a farming intensity gradient with significantly greater species richness for both families on extensive farms. Our results suggest that different dipteran taxa which utilise linear habitats may have different requirements. This has implications for future agri‐environmental schemes in the context of how we assess the conservation value of linear habitats on farmlands.

Agri-Environment Schemes (AES) have long been implemented across Europe to incentivise farmers to alter their management practices to improve biodiversity and water, air and soil quality. However, the cost-effectiveness of traditional action-based schemes has been questioned, and Result-Based Payment (RBP) schemes have been recommended as an alternative. To evaluate the effectiveness of management actions, RBP approaches often rely on indicator species to monitor changes in environmental conditions. The selection of appropriate indicator species for RBP follows several steps and criteria. One of the mentioned criteria is that the species should react to the farmer's management choices. Thus, the main objective of this study is to understand how existing lists of indicator plant species (aimed at assessing ecological integrity of grasslands and hedgerows in Ireland) are suitable for RBP schemes, by assessing how different environmental and management variables are related to the presence of the plant species selected. Extensive field surveys were conducted to assess the presence and cover of indicator species in grasslands and hedgerows in two study regions in Ireland. The indicator plant species occurrence and diversity (species richness and Simpson's Diversity Index) were correlated with variables within farmers' control and variables outside farmers' control. Results showed that grassland indicator species occurrence and diversity was mainly related to grassland semi-naturalness and to the diversity of habitats existing on the farm – both variables within farmers' control – and thus were appropriate indicators for assessing the effectiveness of management and suitable for use in RBP schemes. Conversely, the occurrence and diversity of hedgerow indicator species was not strongly related to any of the explanatory variables, making them unsuitable for use in a RBP scheme. For a RBP scheme targeted at hedgerows, clear objectives will need to be established and the farmers' management choices need to be better linked to the selected indicator species. The selection of indicator species needs to undergo scientific scrutiny to develop fair results assessments as shown by the results of this study. The analyses conducted highlight the importance of testing if the species react to the farmers' management choices and should be a key methodological step before final indicator species lists are implemented in RBP schemes. Recommendations for results assessments in RBP approaches are discussed based on the results of this study.

The most commonly used method for measuring vegetation cover is visual estimation, which is highly subjective, potentially leading to measurement errors. This poses serious implications to the assessment and continued management of plant species cover, for example in the control of invasive plant species. Morphological analysis of digital imagery has, to date, been primarily applied in the classification of landscape features. Our novel application of morphological image analysis provides an objective method for detection and accurate cover assessment of an invasive alien plant species (IAS), giving reduced measurement errors when compared to visual estimation. Importantly, this method is entirely based on free software. Guidos Toolbox is a collection of generic raster image processing routines, including Morphological Spatial Pattern Analysis (MSPA), which classifies and quantifies features according to shape. MSPA was employed in this study to detect and quantify cover of invasive Petasites pyrenaicus (Winter heliotrope) in digital images of 1 m × 1 m plots. Its efficacy was compared to that of two other methods- GIS Digitisation (used as an accurate baseline) and Visual Estimation (standard method). We tested the limit of MSPA usability on images of varying complexity, i.e. "simple", intermediate" or "complex", depending on presence/absence of other vascular plant species and the species richness of plot. Our results show good agreement between all three methods. MSPA measurement of P. pyrenaicus cover was most closely aligned with the GIS Digitisation (concordance correlation coefficients of 0.966). Visual Estimation was less closely aligned with GIS Digitisation (concordance correlation coefficients of 0.888). However, image complexity resulted in differing levels of agreement; with the closest agreement being achieved between MSPA and GIS Digitisation when used on images of lower and higher complexity. MSPA consistently provides higher accuracy and precision for P. pyrenaicus cover measurement than the standard Visual Estimation method. Our methodology is applicable to a range of focal vegetation species, both herbaceous and graminoid. Future application of MSPA for larger-scale surveying and monitoring via remote sensing is discussed, potentially reducing resource demands and increasing cover measurement consistency and accuracy. We recommend this method forms part of vegetation management toolkits for not only environmental managers, but for anyone concerned with plant cover assessment, from agricultural systems to sustainable resource use.

Concerns over the loss of biodiversity and ecosystem services in farmland have prompted the development of agri-environment policy measures aimed at reducing farming pressure and maintaining semi-natural habitats in farmed landscapes. However, further knowledge is needed to guarantee successful agri-environment measures implementation. The current study assessed the quantity and the quality of semi-natural habitats in farms across a gradient of farming intensities in two contrasting regions in Ireland. Policy protection seemed fundamental for semi-natural habitats preservation. Habitats not protected by agricultural policy relied on extensive farming and are in danger of disappearing if they are intensified or abandoned. Due to the lack of policy incentives for habitat quality, no correlations were found between farming intensity and share of semi-natural habitats with habitat quality. Therefore, extensive farming and retention of habitats alone may not reverse the decline of farmland quality and biodiverisity and, thus, measures incentivising the environmental quality may be more successful.

Questions Studies on bryophyte and lichen diversity patterns along elevational gradients are scarce, although this approach can serve as space-for-time substitution to predict diversity changes because of climate warming. Therefore, we investigated bryophytes and macrolichens in disturbed and undisturbed stands along an elevational gradient in the unique laurel forest of Madeira island by addressing the following questions: (a) how does the species richness of functional-taxonomic bryophyte and macrolichen groups differ with elevation; (b) how is the species richness of these groups affected by disturbances? Location UNESCO World Natural Heritage site laurel forest of Madeira island (Madeira, Portugal). Methods We analyzed species richness of bryophytes and macrolichens in 92 plots in response to elevation and to disturbances. Results Bryophyte species richness showed a mid-elevational peak, while macrolichen richness increased with elevation. Disturbed plots harbored on average 20% less bryophyte and macrolichen species than undisturbed plots. Conclusions The laurel forest of Madeira island is a bryophyte and lichen diversity hotspot. Our findings indicate future biodiversity threats by changing environmental conditions. This calls for the need for a strict protection status of the laurel forest on Madeira island to minimize human-related disturbances, for the development of management measures that could mitigate climate change effects by maximizing habitat suitability and for the implementation of species conservation programs to prevent future extinctions, in particular of endemic species.

The intensification of farming practices, along with the loss and fragmentation of semi‐natural habitats within agricultural areas, has contributed significantly to insect decline worldwide including flower‐visiting aculeate Hymenoptera. In this study aculeate Hymenoptera were collected using bi‐directional Malaise traps placed along farmland linear habitats across a range of farming intensities. The aim was to further our understanding of the value of farmland linear habitats to this insect group and in particular the Vespinae, an understudied subfamily. Overall, significantly greater aculeate Hymenoptera species richness was found on extensive than on intermediate and intensive farms. Significantly more species and specimens were collected on the side of the traps adjacent to the linear habitats compared to the side which opened onto the fields. Aculeate Hymenoptera species richness was also significantly greater in dense hedgerows than in open hedgerows. Furthermore, two out of six Vespinae species, Vespula rufa and Vespula vulgaris, had significantly more individuals on extensive than intensive farms. This study highlights that low‐intensity farming practices and farmland linear habitats, especially dense hedgerows, may enhance aculeate Hymenoptera occurrence in agricultural areas. It also demonstrates that Malaise traps set up along linear habitats across a range of farming intensities can make a significant contribution to knowledge regarding the biodiversity value of such areas. Given that selected Vespinae species follow similar trends to aculeate Hymenoptera, the possibility of using them as simple biodiversity indicators is worthy of further exploration.

The distribution of bryophytes and lichens is influenced by topographic, geological and macroclimatic factors and by smaller-scale factors such as light and humidity. This study addresses the following questions in relation to Madeira's laurel forest: a) How does the community composition of bryophytes and macrolichens react to environmental factors? b) Do different groups have different niches? c) Which species are associated with undisturbed areas of the forest? We sampled 92 circular plots occupying an area of 100 m(2) that comprised four ground subplots and two trees where bryophytes and macrolichens were inventoried. We recorded environmental variables (e.g. rock cover) in the field and extracted additional variables from GIS maps. We performed two Canonical correspondence analyses for bryophyte and lichen communities (CCA) and an Indicator species analysis (ISA) to understand which species were associated with undisturbed forest. Temperature was closely related to the first ordination axes and was the most important environmental variable for both communities. Since temperature is strongly correlated to altitude, this gradient is best seen as a complex altitudinal gradient. The second important gradient structuring both bryophytes and macrolichen communities was human intervention (considered as detectable forest alteration by human activities). The results of mean comparisons between groups indicate that significant differences exist only between liverworts and mosses. Liverworts are linked to more humid and sheltered areas of the forest. Among the species obtained by the ISA, four are endemic bryophytes and four are macrolichens belonging to the 'New Index of Ecological Continuity'. Past and present human activities influence the community structure of both groups. Therefore, to assess the success of conservation measures, we suggest establishing a system based on monitoring indicator species.

Background and aims - The importance of altitude as a driver of both species and genetic diversity has been widely acknowledged, since it affects other environmental variables such as temperature and precipitation, also influencing the distribution of plant species and, potentially, intraspecific genetic variation. In this study, we hypothesize that molecular (haplotype) variation within four Macaronesian bryophyte species co-varies with other diversity variables for two altitudinal levels.Methods - Samples with molecular and floristic data were grouped into two altitudinal levels for mean comparisons. We measured the genetic diversity (haplotype diversity) of four bryophytes (Exsertotheca intermedia, Isothecium prolixum, Frullania polysticta and Porella canariensis) and determined floristic richness variables as well as each species cover using the data collected in 92 plots across the natural Laurel forest of Madeira Island. Molecular analyses included the sequencing of ITS1-5.8S-ITS2 and the chloroplast DNA rps4-trnT-trnL region. A haplotype diversity index, based on haplotype frequencies, was also calculated and compared with the percentage of sporophytes, for each studied species.Key results - The results obtained by the mean comparisons revealed that bryophyte species richness and endemic species richness are higher for high altitudes levels in the natural forest. A coincident pattern between the species richness and the genetic diversity was observed for the mosses I. prolixum and E. intermedia, in which a higher species cover and genetic diversity occurred at high altitudes. However, F. polysticta displayed an inverse pattern, and P. canariensis did not present any significant differences in cover and haplotype frequency means.Conclusion - From a conservation and management perspective, our findings highlight the importance of maintaining large patches of Macaronesian bryophyte species, since our results indicate a possible effect of altitude on species cover, affecting species genetic diversity. This should be considered in management plans, especially for endemics and red-listed species.

On oceanic islands, the evolution of plants and animals with particular characteristics is favoured due to their isolation, populations normally comprising a large number of unique, endemic species. The Madeira and Selvagens archipelagos are considered biodiversity hotspots, containing an especially rich bryoflora. Due to its characteristically small size, this taxonomic group does not get much attention in conservation programmes. However, these plants are an important component of terrestrial ecosystems, representing a major part of biodiversity and playing a vital role in the ecosystem's functioning. As such, the development of the first Red List for Madeira and Selvagens Archipelagos has the potential to guide conservation efforts focused on taxa and habitats where threatened species and endemics are better represented. By applying the International Union for Conservation of Nature and Natural Resources (IUCN) criteria, recently revised to apply to small islands, it was possible to obtain the percentage of threatened taxa present in the archipelagos (23.6%), and for each habitat type. It was verified that high mountain habitats and the Laurel forest represent areas that host higher percentages of threatened taxa (29.5% and 22.2%). An important result of the present Red List is the identification of hotspots for bryophyte diversity, supporting the definition of reserves/microreserves. The information obtained can also be linked up with the Red Lists of other taxonomic groups to work towards the definition of a more holistic conservation strategy.