Growing concerns about climate variability and resource limitations have increased interest in plant factory systems with artificial lighting (PFALs) as a controlled approach to crop production. Basil (Ocimum basilicum L.) is a high-value horticultural crop that is highly responsive to light conditions, making it a suitable model for improving indoor cultivation strategies. This review examines recent research on optimizing LED spectral composition and daily light integral (DLI) for sustainable basil production in plant factory systems. A structured literature survey covering the period 2010-2025 was conducted using peer-reviewed studies retrieved from Web of Science, Scopus, ScienceDirect, and Google Scholar. Studies investigating LED spectral composition (blue, red, green, far-red, and ultraviolet wavelengths), photosynthetic photon flux density (PPFD), and DLI were evaluated with respect to biomass production, morphological responses, phytochemical accumulation, and energy-use efficiency. The reviewed evidence indicates that balanced red-blue dominant spectra generally support both high biomass productivity and desirable plant structure, whereas excessive red light tends to favour vegetative growth at the expense of phytochemical concentration. Moderate supplementation with blue and ultraviolet wavelengths has been associated with increased phenolic content and antioxidant activity. Optimizing DLI through photoperiod management can improve yield stability while avoiding unnecessary increases in energy consumption beyond cultivar-specific saturation thresholds. Overall, sustainable basil production in PFAL systems requires coordinated management of spectral quality, light intensity parameters, and cultivar-specific responses. These findings contribute to the development of precision lighting strategies that improve productivity and energy-use efficiency in plant factory systems. Future development of stage-specific and cultivar-targeted lighting regimes will be essential for improving productivity while maintaining economically viable indoor herb production.

Global warming and uneven rainfall distribution make it necessary to study not only yield but also crop quality when growing chili peppers. The yield of four chili pepper varieties (Hetényi Parázs, Unikal, Unijol and Habanero) and the changes in chlorophyll fluorescence (Fv/Fm), relative chlorophyll content (SPAD), capsaicin (CAP), dihydrocapsaicin (DC) and vitamin C content during fruit ripening were investigated in an open field experiment. The experiment covered two years of cultivation (dry and rainy years), three different water supply conditions and annual harvests. The aim of the experiments was to determine the most favourable harvest time for the yield of varieties under different environments, and explore the relationship between photosynthesis-related traits (SPAD and Fv/Fm) and bioactive compounds during fruit ripening. Three irrigation treatments were used: regular irrigation (I100 corresponds to 100% ET), deficit irrigation (I50 represents half of I100) and no irrigation (I0). The water supply had less influence on the CAP content but the DC content was higher under water scarcity. Late harvest resulted in low yield and high CAP and vitamin C content but differences were observed between varieties depending on water supply. During the ripening of the fruits, a negative relationship was observed between SPAD and the levels of capsaicin and dihydrocapsaicin, while the relationship between SPAD and vitamin C was positive. These correlations indicate that changes in SPAD during ripening are associated with changes in bioactive compounds, making it possible to identify the stages associated with better fruit quality.

The assessment of water stress levels in plants should be an essential part of precise irrigation management, and a good and quick method is useful in plant phenotyping. There are many options for this task, but the effectiveness varies between crop species and environments. Apparently open field applications face the most difficulties. This study aimed to test a large number of vegetation indices (VIs) and multivariate models based on hyperspectral reflectance data (325–1075 nm) regarding their correlation and prediction abilities to leaf stomatal conductance, relative water content (RWC), and detailed chlorophyll and carotenoid components.Data of the abovementioned variables was collected during three consecutive growing seasons in processing tomato cultivated under different water supply regimes to provide data with varying water stress levels. Then the relation of the measured variables to 226 VIs was tested created according to the formulas collected in the Index DataBase, established within the IDB Project. New VIs were also developed derived from the most important variables of the ML algorithms, customised to tomato water stress assessment. Standard normal variate and its combination with Savitzky-Golay first derivative were used for pre-processing the spectra, and principal component regression (PCR), partial least squares regression (PLSR), elastic net (ENET), support vector regression (SVR), random forest (RF) and extreme gradient boosting (XGB) algorithms were tested.The newly developed indices outperformed the existing formulas, except in the case of β-carotene. The most reliable index was developed for RWC estimation; that was the difference of the reflectance on the 986 and 701 nm wavelengths.The ENET and SVR algorithms produced the best models depending on the pre-processing method. The blue, near-infrared (NIR), and green regions, respectively, were the most important regarding all models according to the variable importance analysis. The model with the best metrics was developed for chlorophyll-a (R2=0.82, nRMSE=11%, RPIQ=2.41), followed by RWC (R2=0.72, nRMSE=14%, RPIQ=2.53).

With global agriculture increasingly challenged by water scarcity and the need to reduce chemical inputs, plant growth-promoting bacteria (PGPB) offer a sustainable means to enhance crop productivity and stress tolerance. By improving nutrient availability and uptake efficiency, PGPB can reduce the reliance on synthetic fertilizers without compromising crop yield or quality, delivering both economic and environmental benefits. Despite this potential, most existing studies have focused on short-term effects in seedlings or plantlets under laboratory conditions using artificial substrates, with relatively few investigations addressing the full crop life cycle under realistic field conditions. In this study, we assessed the effects of two rhizosphere-derived bacterial isolates from arid grasslands—Kocuria rhizophila FSP120 and Brevibacillus porteri FSP5—on tomato (Solanum lycopersicum “Uno Rosso”) performance under both full and deficit irrigation regimes. The isolates were applied either as seed coatings or post-emergence inoculants. Seed coating treatments negatively impacted germination and early seedling development. In contrast, post-emergence application of FSP120 significantly enhanced plant height, leaf number, and advanced the onset of flowering by more than 1 week. Importantly, FSP120 inoculation increased marketable fruit yield by 16% under full irrigation and 11% under deficit conditions compared to untreated controls. Lycopene and total carotenoid concentrations were improved by 23–29%, while tocopherol and vitamin C contents remained unaffected. Metagenomic analysis confirmed successful rhizosphere colonization by FSP120, indicating its ecological competitiveness and potential for enhancing plant resilience. Conversely, FSP5 exhibited limited colonization capacity and lower agronomic benefits. These results underscore the importance of selecting effective bacterial strains and optimizing delivery methods in the design of PGPB-based bioinoculant strategies. K. rhizophila FSP120 strain emerges as a promising candidate for improving the sustainability and nutritional quality of tomato production throughout the full plant life cycle under field-relevant irrigation conditions.

With the global population projected to reach 8.6 billion by 2050 and urbanization on the rise, sustainable food production in cities becomes imperative. Vertical farming presents a promising solution to meet this challenge by utilizing space-efficient, controlled-environment agriculture techniques. In a vertical farming system, high quality, high nutritional value products can be produced with minimum water consumption, using LEDs as energy-efficient light sources. Microgreens are a new market category of vegetables among sprouts and baby leaf greens. The most critical challenge in their cultivation is the choice of growing medium, lighting, and light spectrum, which affect photosynthesis, plant growth, and yield. This review explores various cultivation methods, including hydroponics, within the context of vertical farming. Using current research, it investigates the effect of LED lighting on the physiological properties and growth of microgreens and baby leaf lettuce, but further research is needed to determine the response of the varieties and the optimal light spectrum ratios to meet their needs.

Given the global importance of sweet potatoes as a nutrient-rich staple food, this research aimed to find the optimal cultivation practices to improve both yield and carotenoid content, with a particular focus on enhancing β-carotene content. In this study, the effects of different cultivation methods and plant densities on the agronomic parameters, physiological characteristics and carotenoid content of the ‘Beauregard’ variety were investigated across two consecutive growing seasons. Besides storage root yield, the key physiological parameters, including SPAD and chlorophyll fluorescence (Fv/Fm), were monitored to assess plant health and photosynthetic performance. Carotenoid content, including trans-β-carotene, cis-β-carotene, and ζ-carotene, was quantified using high-performance liquid chromatography (HPLC). Results indicated that the ridge cultivation method, particularly when combined with twin-row planting, consistently produced the highest yields, reaching the maximum of 40.87 t ha−1 in 2020. The flat cultivation method, especially in simple rows, showed the lowest yield. The analysis revealed that plant density had a more pronounced effect on yield and carotenoid content than the ridge or flat cultivation method alone. The maximum β-carotene content was achieved in the simple row (17,500 plants/ha) treatment planted on ridges with 247 µg/g. Significant correlations between both SPAD readings and Fv/Fm and yield were revealed, but no correlations with storage root carotenoid content were found. This suggests that, while these leaf physiological traits can be used to estimate the yield, they are not directly associated with the carotene content of the storage root. The study highlights the ridge cultivation and 35,000 plants/ha method as a stable and high-yielding option for ‘Beauregard’ in terms of improving and balancing the yield and carotenoid content; however, reducing the plant density resulted in elevated carotenoid content with significant yield reductions. The findings contribute to the understanding of how agronomic practices influence the nutritional and physiological traits of sweet potatoes, with implications for improving food security and nutritional outcomes in sweet potato cultivation.

PurposeBy focussing on the anticipated emotional reactions of volunteers and drawing on theories of motivation and identity, this study investigates how volunteers react to different options of the entrepreneurial model of Amigos for Children Foundation (ACF). The paper proposes a hypothetical model for volunteer's emotional reactions to potential business model changes. We suggest the relative importance of intrinsic motivational factors, professional identity and attitudes towards business organisations as mediating variables. ACF works exclusively with university students as volunteers, so their specific characteristics may limit some of the conclusions and propositions of this qualitative research, but public policy consequences of supporting similar entrepreneurial transitions can be generally relevant.Design/methodology/approachBased on the qualitative analysis of semi-structured interviews with volunteers of ACF, a Hungarian non-profit organisation, we explore the challenges of transitioning into a social enterprise.FindingsPrevious research showed controversial results about the impact of pay on the motivations of volunteers. For a non-profit organisation that would like to utilise the competencies of its volunteers, introducing a market-based service may mean additional financial resources and the potential loss of human resources. Understanding the moderating factors of volunteers' reactions might help build better theories for managing the non-profit-social enterprise transition and designing public policies to support scaling up the impact of successful social purpose organisations.Originality/valueFor practitioners, the research underlines the importance of participatory mechanisms in volunteer management. By managing transitions better, non-profit organisations can expand their social impact by acquiring more financial resources through market-based activities closely related to their original activities and keeping their volunteers. The study elucidates the relevance of the crowding-out effect and indicates some hypothetical moderating variables influencing its potential degree.

The aim of this study was to estimate field-grown tomato yield (weight) and quantity of tomatoes using a self-developed robot and digital single lens reflex (DSLR) camera pictures. The authors suggest a new approach to predicting tomato yield that is based on images taken in the field, 3D scanning, and shape. Field pictures were used for tomato segmentation to determine the ripeness of the crop. A convolution neural network (CNN) model using TensorFlow library was devised for the segmentation of tomato berries along with a small robot, which had a 59.3 % F1 score. To enhance the accurate tomato crop model and to estimate the yield later, point cloud imaging was applied using a Ciclops 3D scanner. The best fitting sphere model was generated using the 3D model. The most optimal model was the 3D model, which gave the best representation and provided the weight of the tomatoes with a relative error of 21.90 % and a standard deviation of 17.9665 %. The results indicate a consistent object-based classification of the tomato crop above the plant/row level with an accuracy of 55.33 %, which is better than in-row sampling (images taken by the robot). By comparing the measured and estimated yield, the average difference for DSLR camera images was more favorable at 3.42 kg.

Potato ( Solanum tuberosum L.) is a staple food widely consumed in Tunisia and represents a source of various secondary metabolites with human health benefits. However, cold storage of potato tuber affects their bioactive properties and functional quality. Despite the importance of this fact, few studies have examined the effects of extended cold storage on potato tubers quality. Therefore, the objective of the present work was to evaluate the effect of cold storage on the main quality traits of different potato genotypes grown in Tunisia. This investigation focused on four cultivated potato varieties including three commercial (Selena, Elbeidha, and Naima) and a selected clone CL27 grown under late cropping season conditions with planting at the beginning of autumn and a winter tuberization. The tubers from this trial were stored for 90 days at 8°C. The results obtained showed that quality traits of potato tubers were strongly influenced by storage at 8°C throughout 90 days. Additionally, disregarding the genotype, total carotenoids, phenolics, and flavonoids contents increased significantly following 90 days storage at 8°C. However, genotypic differences underlying the antioxidant activity in both hydrophilic and lipophilic fractions were detected suggesting their sensibility to cold storage. This study might be useful for breeders working on potato genotypes suitable for extended storage duration and for growers storing their material for extended period under low temperature.

Purpose This study aims to develop and validate the scales on the dark side of internal communication (IC) that capture a more nuanced perception of ineffectiveness, manipulation and miscommunication from the employee perspective. This study also examines this scale's effects on employee outcomes (such as employee loyalty and quiet quitting). Design/methodology/approach The authors developed the dark side of the IC scale through qualitative interviews and a review of relevant literature. Statistical techniques such as exploratory and confirmatory factor analysis, convergent validity and nomological validity were performed on the newly produced scales. The authors also examined the predictive validity effects of these scales on employee loyalty and quiet quitting using participants from Hungary. Findings The scale development resulted in a 15-item measuring three dimensions of the dark side of IC. After several statistical examinations, the scale exhibited robust psychometric properties and is reliable and valid. Originality/value This study empirically supported the new phenomenon of studying the dark side of IC, and the scale can be used to measure employee outcomes, the effectiveness of organizational communication, etc.

The tomato as a raw material for processing is globally important and is pivotal in dietary and agronomic research due to its nutritional, economic, and health significance. This study explored the potential of machine learning (ML) for predicting tomato quality, utilizing data from 48 cultivars and 28 locations in Hungary over 5 seasons. It focused on °Brix, lycopene content, and colour (a/b ratio) using extreme gradient boosting (XGBoost) and artificial neural network (ANN) models. The results revealed that XGBoost consistently outperformed ANN, achieving high accuracy in predicting °Brix (R² = 0.98, RMSE = 0.07) and lycopene content (R² = 0.87, RMSE = 0.61), and excelling in colour prediction (a/b ratio) with a R² of 0.93 and RMSE of 0.03. ANN lagged behind particularly in colour prediction, showing a negative R² value of −0.35. Shapley additive explanation’s (SHAP) summary plot analysis indicated that both models are effective in predicting °Brix and lycopene content in tomatoes, highlighting different aspects of the data. SHAP analysis highlighted the models’ efficiency (especially in °Brix and lycopene predictions) and underscored the significant influence of cultivar choice and environmental factors like climate and soil. These findings emphasize the importance of selecting and fine-tuning the appropriate ML model for enhancing precision agriculture, underlining XGBoost’s superiority in handling complex agronomic data for quality assessment.

Landraces are considered a crucial component of biodiversity conservation, serving as a reservoir of genetic diversity. Consequently, the collection, cultivation, and detailed characterization of such landraces constitute an inherent aspect of the world’s natural resource heritage. This effort holds promise for the development of elite varieties capable of thriving amidst continuous global climate fluctuations. In this context, we conducted a comprehensive assessment of the main agronomic attributes, physico-chemical properties, and functional quality traits of the major hot pepper landraces adapted to diverse climatic conditions in Tunisia. These landraces include ‘Dhirat’, ‘Semmane’, ‘Beldi’, ‘Nabeul’, ‘Jerid’, ‘Mahdia’, ‘Cayenne’, ‘Kairouan’, and ‘Baklouti’. Most of the pepper landraces exhibited satisfactory yields, ranging from 1163.25 to 1841.67 g plant−1 in ‘Jerid’ and ‘Kairouan’, respectively, indicating robust productivity, especially under prevailing climatic changes and high temperatures during both growing cycles. The levels of antioxidants comprising capsaicinoids, carotenoids, phenolics, and tocopherols, as well as radical scavenging activity, emerged as key discriminating factors among pungent pepper landraces. Irrespective of genotype, capsaicin and dihydrocapsaicin constituted the major capsaicinoids, accounting for 44–91% of the total capsaicinoids content. Total capsaicinoids ranged from 1.81 µg g−1 fw to 193.71 µg g−1 fw, with ‘Baklouti’ and ‘Jerid’ identified as the most pungent landraces. Total carotenoids ranged from 45.94 µg g−1 fw to 174.52 µg g−1 fw, with ‘Semmane’ and ‘Jerid’ exhibiting the highest levels. Considerable variation was observed in β-carotene content, spanning from 3% to 24% of the total carotenoids. α-Tocopherol content ranged from 19.03 µg g−1 fw in ‘Kairouan’ to 30.93 µg g−1 fw in ‘Beldi’, exerting a notable influence on the overall tocopherol content. Conversely, the β- and γ-tocopherol isomers were detected at very low concentrations. The total vitamin C content ranged from 132 mg 100g−1 fw in ‘Mahdia’ to 200 mg 100 g−1 fw in ‘Nabeul’, indicating relatively low genetic variability. However, large variability was detected in total phenolics content, ranging from 168.58 mg GAE kg−1 fw in ‘Beldi’ to 302.98 mg GAE kg−1 fw in ‘Cayenne’. Landraces such as ‘Dhirat’, ‘Nabeul’, ‘Semmane’, ‘Kairouan’, ‘Cayenne’, and ‘Mahdia’ appear suitable for both fresh consumption and processing, owing to their favorable average fruit weight, soluble solids content, and bioactive content. Among the pepper landraces tested, ‘Cayenne’ achieved the highest value of radical scavenging activity in both hydrophilic and lipophilic fractions (RSAHF and RSALF), with variations ranging from 59% to 120% for RSAHF and from 4% to 63% for RSALF. This study aims to preserve and enhance the value of local genetic resources and contribute to identify desirable traits for incorporation into breeding programs to develop high-quality, high-yielding landraces and elite lines.

Potato (Solanum tuberosum L.) is a staple food widely consumed in Tunisia and a source of nutrients beneficial for human health. The tubers are, indeed, important source of vitamins, minerals, and bioactive compounds, including carotenoids, polyphenols, and flavonoids. However, data regarding the functional quality of potato varieties grown and consumed in Tunisia are very scarce. For this reason, two field trials were conducted to focus on the effect of the growing season on the functional quality of four potato genotypes (Selena, El Beidha, Naima, and CL07F172.5): a first autumnal trial in Teboulba, Monastir (September 2015-February 2016), which is the late cropping season (LCS) and a second summer cropping season (SCS) in El ksour, El Kef region at an altitude > 1000 m (July 2015-October 2015). Total carotenoids, total phenolics, and flavonoids contents, as well as the hydrophilic radical scavenging activity and lipophilic radical scavenging activity (LRSA) were determined. The obtained results confirmed the importance of potato tubers as a source of bioactive compounds. All quality traits varied significantly among varieties and cropping seasons. Tubers grown under colder weather conditions (LCS: minimum and maximum averages temperatures and relative humidity (RH) ranging between 14.25 and 22.55 degrees C and 25.46% and 83.07%, respectively) accumulated the highest total vitamin C content and exhibited the highest LRSA values. However, temperature and warmer growing conditions (SCS: minimum and maximum averages temperatures and RH ranging between 19.74 and 34.22 degrees C and 35.46% and 87.51%, respectively) probably enhanced the synthesis and accumulation of total carotenoids, total phenolics, and total flavonoids, associated with higher LRSA values.

Based on interviews with key stakeholder groups of social enterprises in Hungary, democratic practices in decision making were seen as important features of social enterprises. However, there were several comments about participatory governance's negative effect on operational efficiency. One of the aims of the paper is to explore this controversial finding from the perspective of leaders of social enterprises. In the theoretical part we summarise the foundations of employee involvement and participation (EIP) in small businesses and social enterprises, and possible explanations of how (EIP) may impact job related flow experiences. Based on the qualitative analysis of semi-structured interviews with leaders of social enterprises, we propose as a hypothesis the measurement of the impact of participatory practices on flow experiences of employees and volunteers as an effective evaluation criterion for participatory governance. One interesting finding is that compared to other aspects of participation (e.g. strategic decision making and innovation) involvement in HRM practices (especially regarding the role of middle managers) in social enterprises seems to be with the most direct impact on the wellbeing and flow experiences of employees and volunteers that may be interesting for future research also calling for the examination of employees' perspectives.

The effect of mycorrhizal fungi and plant growth promoting rhizobacteria on some physiological properties, yield and soluble solid content (Brix) of ‘Uno Rosso’ F1 processing tomato was studied under water scarcity. Inoculation was performed with mycorrhizal fungi (M) and rhizobacteria preparation (PH) at sowing (M1, PH1) and sowing + planting (M2, PH2). The treated and untreated plants were grown with regular irrigation (RI = ET100%), with deficit irrigation (DI = ET50%) and without irrigation (I0). In drought, the canopy temperature of plants inoculated with arbuscular mycorrhizal fungi (M1, M2) decreased significantly, however, the decrease was small in those treated with the bacterium (PH1, PH2), while the SPAD value of the leaves of plants treated only with Phylazonit increased significantly. On two occasions, inoculations (M2, PH2) significantly increased the total yield and marketable yield, however, under water deficiency, a higher rate of green yield was detected than untreated plants. In dry year using deficit irrigation, the one-time inoculation (M1, PH1) provided a more favorable Brix value, while the double treatments reduced the Brix. In moderate water scarcity, the use of mycorrhizal inoculation (M2) is preferable, while under weak water stress, the use of rhizobacteria inoculation (PH2) is more favorable.

Tomato landraces have progressively faded into obscurity, making way for new hybrids and elite tomato cultivars. This study presents a comprehensive evaluation of the agronomic attributes, physicochemical properties, and functional traits across seven cultivars, comprising two high-pigment varieties, ‘HLT−F81’ and ‘HLT−F82’, as well as five underutilized ancient-tomato genotypes considered as landraces. Most of the studied genotypes exhibited satisfactory horticultural and processing traits. The average fruit weight ranged from 73.3 g in ‘Rimone’ to 91.83 g in ‘HLT−F81’, while the soluble solids content ranged from 4.66 °Brix in ‘Justar’ to 6.08 °Brix in ‘HLT−F81’. The functional quality and the content of most antioxidants, as well as the antioxidant activity in both hydrophilic and lipophilic fractions, proved to be the most discriminating parameters among the tomato genotypes. The content of β−carotene and lycopene spanned from 2.94 mg kg−1 fw in ‘Rio Grande’ to 13.94 mg kg−1 fw in ‘HLT−F82’ and 227.8 mg kg−1 fw in ‘HLT−F81’, yielding large variations compared to ‘Rio Grande’. The total phenolic content ranged from 139.83 mg GAE kg−1 fw in ‘Rimone’ to 352.41 mg GAE kg−1 fw in ‘HLT-F81’, while the flavonoid content varied from 136.16 mg RE kg−1 fw in ‘Justar’ to 311.23 mg RE kg−1 fw in ‘HLT-F82’. The presence of tocopherol isomers was genotype-dependent, with a higher content in lines carrying the high-pigment mutations. Among the tested tomato genotypes, the high-pigment tomato line ‘HLT−F81’ achieved the highest hydrophilic and lipophilic antioxidant activity values. This study primarily focused on the recovery and valorization of tomato genetic resources and landraces. It also aimed to identify desirable horticultural (yield, low-input, and low-water demand), processing (°Brix and titratable acidity), and quality (rich antioxidant berries) traits for introgression into new tomato cultivars better suited to the evolving climate conditions of the near future.

Maintaining a diverse diet is essential for the preservation of one’s health and may contribute to the fight against significant civilization diseases such as obesity or diabetes. Sweet potato can be fitted into a diverse diet and serve as a functional food with its antioxidant content. Therefore, it is important to know how the production technology alters the content and composition of these antioxidant compounds. The objective of this study was to collect information on how the increased potassium dominant fertilizer levels and also the additional high-dose fertigation can affect the phytonutrient contents and yields in an orange- and a purple-fleshed sweet potato cultivar. Field experiments were conducted in the Hungarian county of Heves in two consecutive growing seasons in 2021–2022. Different doses of potassium-predominant fertilizer were applied to an orange flesh (Beauregard) and a purple flesh (Stokes Purple) varieties of sweet potatoes. Different application techniques were used in the form of base and top dressing at different rates. The effect on yield and polyphenol content of the different fertilizer rates was investigated. Analytical studies were carried out by high-performance liquid chromatography (HPLC). In the case of the Beauregard variety, in addition to identifying the carotenoids, we also performed their quantitative determination. We found that 87% of the carotenoid content was ß-carotene. The total anthocyanin content was investigated for the purple variety—Stokes Purple, for which a new extraction method was developed. In our study, the split dosages, when the pre-planting fertilizer was supplemented with additional liquid fertilization, resulted in 36 and 30.5% higher yields in the Beauregard in Experiment I and Experiment II, respectively, compared to the untreated control plots over the two years. The additional liquid fertilizer increased the yield to a lesser extent when compared to treatments received only pre-planting fertilizer. As for Experiment III, the split dosages resulted in 34.4% higher yields in the Stokes Purple compared to the control plots. However, the additional liquid fertilizer was not effective at all when the plants received a double dose of pre-planting fertilizer in the case of Stokes Purple. Total carotenoid (Experiment I–II) was higher and anthocyanin yield per plant (Experiment III) was significantly higher in the split-dosage treatment than in the untreated control plots.

Managing crop yields and optimizing water use is a global challenge, as fresh water supply decreases rapidly and demand remains high. Therefore, understanding how plants react to varying water levels is crucial for efficient water usage. This study evaluates how tomato plants adapt to varying water levels (100%, 50% of crop evapotranspiration, and non-irrigated control) over two growing seasons in 2020 and 2021. Root images were captured weekly during an 8-week monitoring period in 2020 and 6 weeks in 2021 using a non-destructive CI-600 in-situ root imager at depths between 10 and 70 cm. Under water stress, plants developed deeper, more extensive root systems to maximize water uptake, consistent with prior research. Root depth and architecture varied with soil depth and the severity of water stress. Year-to-year variations were also found, likely due to changes in irrigation levels and environmental conditions such as temperature. SPAD values were higher under control conditions, especially in the 2021 growing season, suggesting reduced chlorophyll degradation, while no significant differences were observed in chlorophyll fluorescence (Fv/Fm) between treatments, suggesting stable photosynthetic efficiency under varied water stress conditions. These findings contribute to our understanding of root zone optimization and drought-resilient cultivar breeding, contributing to more sustainable agricultural practices.