IntroductionAccurately quantifying the diet of species has implications for our understanding of their ecology and conservation. Yet, determining the dietary composition of threatened and elusive species in the wild is often difficult.MethodsThis study presents the first dietary assessment of tjakura (Liopholis kintorei) using non-invasive sampling of scats and high-throughput sequencing techniques.ResultsThe tjakura in Uluru consumed 48 invertebrates, 27 plants, and two vertebrate taxa. Fruit flies (Leucophenga spp.), beetles (Harpalus spp. and Omorgus spp.), mosquitos (Culicidae spp.), termites (Termitidae spp.), spiked mallow (Malvastrum americanum), bush tomatoes (Solanum centrale), and wild turnip (Brassica tournefortii) comprised the majority of the diet. Analysis of similarity revealed that food items did not differ significantly between tjakura age groups, seasons, or time since the last fire, however, adults, hot season, and fire scar of 2018 showed a relatively higher prey diversity.DiscussionThese high similarities in diet composition between age classes and fire scars indicate potential intraspecific competition when food resources are scarce. The diet diversity and potential plasticity observed in this study reflect a dietary ecology influenced by food availability rather than preference. Our study demonstrates that scat DNA metabarcoding is an important complementary tool to conventional scat analysis or indigenous knowledge as most food items we identified were previously not recorded through those methods.

The complete mitochondrial genome (mitogenome) of the tjaku□a, Liopholis kintorei was obtained using next-generation sequencing, making it the first recorded mitogenome of the genus Liopholis and the Tiliquini . The mitogenome is 16,844bp in length with a base composition of A (31.7%), T (24.4%), G (14.6%), and C (29.3%) and a G + C content of 43.9%. The genome contains 13 protein-coding genes, 22 transfer RNA genes, two ribosomal RNA genes (12S and 16S), and three non-coding fragments, consisting of the putative control region and two mitochondrially encoded heavy strand origin of replication region (OriH). The gene order is identical to that of typical skink mitogenomes. This genomic resource will provide valuable information for genetic studies of this genus and contribute to the growing collection of mitogenomes within the family Scincidae. ### Competing Interest Statement The authors have declared no competing interest.

Biodiversity monitoring programmes should be designed with sufficient statistical power to detect population change. Here we evaluated the statistical power of monitoring to detect declines in the occupancy of forest birds on Christmas Island, Australia. We fitted zero-inflated binomial models to 3 years of repeat detection data (2011, 2013 and 2015) to estimate single-visit detection probabilities for four species of concern: the Christmas Island imperial pigeon Ducula whartoni, Christmas Island white-eye Zosterops natalis, Christmas Island thrush Turdus poliocephalus erythropleurus and Christmas Island emerald dove Chalcophaps indica natalis. We combined detection probabilities with maps of occupancy to simulate data collected over the next 10 years for alternative monitoring designs and for different declines in occupancy (10–50%). Specifically, we explored how the number of sites (60, 128, 300, 500), the interval between surveys (1–5 years), the number of repeat visits (2–4 visits) and the location of sites influenced power. Power was high (> 80%) for the imperial pigeon, white-eye and thrush for most scenarios, except for when only 60 sites were surveyed or a 10% decline in occupancy was simulated over 10 years. For the emerald dove, which is the rarest of the four species and has a patchy distribution, power was low in almost all scenarios tested. Prioritizing monitoring towards core habitat for this species only slightly improved power to detect declines. Our study demonstrates how data collected during the early stages of monitoring can be analysed in simulation tools to fine-tune future survey design decisions.

World Heritage Sites are facing unprecedented challenges from climate change, posing a threat to their natural and cultural values. In this Perspective, we discuss the impacts of climate change on World Heritage Sites and describe how a systematic pivot to strengthen consideration of three aspects of management can assist conservation of sites. This systematic pivot responds to social and environmental dynamics and requires reinforcing adaptation pathways through (1) integrating pluralistic, evolving values due to climate change; (2) developing and applying holistic methods to recognize connections between cultural and natural values; and (3) ensuring Indigenous leadership, perspectives and pathways.

Precipitation variability and heatwaves are expected to intensify over much of inland Australia under most projected climate change scenarios. This will undoubtedly have impacts on the biota of Australian dryland systems. However, accurate modelling of these impacts is presently impeded by a lack of empirical research on drought/heatwave effects on native arid flora and fauna. During the 2018-2021 Australian drought, many parts of the continent's inland experienced their hottest, driest period on record. Here, we present the results of a field survey in 2021 involving indigenous rangers, scientists and national parks staff who assessed plant dieback during this drought at Uluru-Kata Tjuta National Park (UKTNP), central Australia. Spatially randomized quadrat sampling of eight common and culturally important plants indicated the following plant death rates across UKTNP (in order of drought susceptibility): desert myrtle (Aluta maisonneuvei subsp. maisonneuvei) (91%), yellow flame grevillea (Grevillea eriostachya) (79%), Maitland's wattle (Acacia maitlandii) (67%), waxy wattle (A. melleodora) (65%), soft spinifex grass (Triodia pungens) (53%), mulga (A. aneura) (42%), desert oak (Allocasuarina decaisneana) (22%) and quandong (Santalum acuminatum) (0%). The sampling also detected that seedling recruitment was absent or minimal for all plants except soft spinifex, while a generalized linear mixed model (GLMM) indicated two-way interactions among species, plant size and stand density as important predictors of drought survival of adult plants. A substantial loss of biodiversity has occurred at UKTNP during the recent drought, with likely drivers of widespread plant mortality being extreme multi-year rainfall deficit (2019 recorded the lowest-ever annual rainfall at UKTNP [27 mm]) and record high summer temperatures (December 2019 recorded the highest-ever temperature [47.1 & DEG;C]). Our findings indicate that widespread plant death and extensive vegetation restructuring will occur across arid Australia if the severity and frequency of droughts increase under climate change.

Madagascar is a threatened global biodiversity hotspot and conservation priority, yet we lack broad-scale surveys to assess biodiversity across space and time. To fill this gap, we collated camera trap surveys, capturing species occurrences within Madagascar into a single standardized database. This data set includes nine distinct protected areas of Madagascar and encompasses 13 subprojects, 38 camera arrays, and 1156 sampling units (independent camera site per survey) within two important biodiversity eco-regions: western dry deciduous forest and eastern humid rainforest. Camera surveys were conducted from June 2007 to January 2021. The final data set includes 17 unique families of mammals (Bovidae, Canidae, Cheirogaleidae, Daubentoniidae, Equidae, Eupleridae, Felidae, Hominidae, Indriidae, Lemuridae, Lepilemuridae, Muridae, Nesomyidae, Pteropodidae, Soricidae, Suidae, Tenrecidae) comprising 45 species and 27 unique families of birds (Accipitridae, Acrocephalidae, Alcedinidae, Bernieridae, Brachypteraciidae, Caprimulgidae, Cisticolidae, Columbidae, Coraciidae, Corvidae, Cuculidae, Dicruridae, Mesitornithidae, Monarchidae, Motacillidae, Muscicapidae, Numididae, Phasianidae, Rallidae, Sarothruridae, Strigidae, Sturnidae, Sulidae, Threskiornithidae, Upupidae, Vangidae, Zosteropidae) comprising 58 species. Images were processed and verified by individual project data set creators and camera operation and species tables were then collated. The final product represents the first broad-scale freely available standardized formal faunal database for Madagascar. Data are available through this publication and at DOI: 10.5281/zenodo.5801806. These data will be useful for examining species-level and community-level trends in occurrence across space or time within Madagascar and globally, evaluating native and invasive species dynamics, and will aid in determining species conservation status and planning for at-risk species. There are no copyright restrictions; please cite this paper when using the data for publication.

Hunting is one of the greatest threats to nonhuman primates worldwide. Despite Madagascar’s status as a primate mega-diversity country, a critical lack of information on the hunting of lemurs at the national scale persists. Here, we synthesize the current state of knowledge of the annual rates of household-level lemur hunting near ten protected areas, representing most ecoregions in Madagascar. We examine geographic and taxonomic variation in lemur hunting, including an analysis of hunting relative to species density, extinction risk, and intrinsic ecological characteristics of species. We found that lemurs are commonly hunted across Madagascar; the rural households in our study ate, on average, more than one lemur each year, or a median of 4.1% of the lemur species’ population size where densities are known. However, this pressure varied significantly across sites and species, reaching its highest levels in the northeastern rainforest region. While hunting levels are concerning for numerous threatened species, hunting pressure was driven primarily by species availability, and among ecological traits, small body size was related to increased hunting; however, conservation status showed no such relationship. This first national-level assessment of hunting, including one-third of Madagascar’s lemur species and more than a tenth of the world’s primates, identifies regional variation and lemur taxa at acute risk from hunting—important steps toward developing targeted strategies to conserve one of the world’s most threatened groups of vertebrates.

Conservation officials work to manage complex and interacting human-environmental systems, where balancing needs between the two systems can become a source of tension. This study presents information on the use of natural resources by, and the health and welfare of, rural communities within and near Ankarafantsika National Park (ANP) in northwestern Madagascar. We focus on behaviors that are difficult for natural resource managers to measure themselves, including the hunting of threatened and protected wildlife and on sensitive information about humanwealth, health, and food security. We surveyed 41 9 households and measured the health of 1 860 individuals in 1 8 communities adjacent to or within the boundaries of ANP. We found a very high prevalence of child malnutrition, illness, and food insecurity and a heavy reliance on natural products to meet subsistence needs. More than 90% of the population reported that they hunted wildlife and harvested wild vegetables at least one day during the prior week as a direct means to cope with their food insecurity. Further, we found a high reliance on the forest for both healthcare and the building of adequate shelter. Efforts to improve overall food security would likely improve both human welfare and the long-term conservation of the threatened wildlife and habitat of Ankarafantsika. These data can help both conservation and community livelihood programs to find integrated solutions to the shared challenges of improving the well-being of human populations and the protection of Madagascar’s unique, endemic, and highly threatened biodiversity. Les gestionnaires oeuvrant pour la protection de la nature sont généralement confrontés à des systèmes socio-écologiques complexes et interactifs dans lesquels la recherche de l’équilibre entre les besoins de ces deux systèmes peut s’avérer être une source de tension. Cette étude présente des informations sur l'utilisation des ressources naturelles par les communautés rurales riveraines du parc national d'Ankarafantsika (PNA) dans le nord-ouest de Madagascar, ainsi que sur la santé et le bien-être de ces communautés. L’étude s’est en particulier orientée sur les comportementsdifficiles à mesurer pour les gestionnaires de ressources naturelles, à savoir la chasse d'animaux sauvages menacés et protégés et les informations portant sur l’opulence, la santé et la sécurité alimentaire des gens. Une enquête a été réalisée auprès de 41 9 ménages et l’état de santé de 1 860 personnes a été mesuré dans 1 8 communautés vivant à la périphérie ou à l’intérieur des limites du PNA. Une très forte prévalence de la malnutrition infantile a été observée ainsi que diverses pathologies, une insécurité alimentaire et une dépendance importante à l'égard des produits naturels pour répondre aux besoins de subsistance. Plus de 90% de la population a déclaré qu'elle avait chassé des animaux et récolté des plantes sauvages au moins un jour au cours de la semaine précédente, à titre de moyen direct pour faire face à l' insécurité alimentaire. Une forte dépendance à l'égard des forêts a également été notée pour les produits destinés à la santé et la construction de maisons. Les efforts visant à améliorer la sécurité alimentaire dans son ensemble pourraient vraisemblablement améliorer le bien-être humain aussi bien que la conservationà long terme de la faune et des habitats menacés de l'Ankarafantsika. Ces données peuvent aider les programmes de conservation et de subsistance de la communauté à trouver des solutions intégrées aux problèmes communs de l’amélioration du bien-être des populations humaines et de la protection de la biodiversité unique, endémique et hautement menacée de Madagascar.

Mongolia’s forest-steppes are one of the most threatened terrestrial ecosystems, being exposed to multiple stressors, including forest loss, fire, inadequate livestock management, and climate change. This study used satellite remote sensing to assess land cover change and long-term trends in primary productivity and precipitations in the Khoid Mogoin Gol-Teel protected area, Arkhangai province, a region of high conservation relevance rich in forest-steppe ecosystems. To our surprise, forest cover and primary productivity were found to be stable or increasing in our study area. The distribution of water bodies and bare ground were found to be decreasing, while the distribution of croplands and grasslands were found to be increasing. The reported increases in primary productivity were interpreted as a result of increasing precipitation in the region. Our findings are expected to help assist the community-led management in securing economic wellbeing and food security for those depending on forest-steppe habitats. In particular, the reported increase in forest cover indicates that natural regeneration is possible in the area and should therefore be encouraged.

Anthropogenic habitat alteration and invasive species are threatening carnivores globally. Understanding the impact of these factors is critical for creating localized, effective conservation programmes. Madagascar's Eupleridae have been described as the least studied and most threatened group of carnivores. We investigated the effects of habitat degradation and the presence of people and exotic species on the modelled occupancy of the endemic fosa Cryptoprocta ferox, conducting camera-trap surveys in two western deciduous forests, Ankarafantsika National Park and Andranomena Special Reserve. Our results indicated no clear patterns between habitat degradation and fosa occupancy but a strong negative association between cats Felis sp. and fosas. Cat occupancy was negatively associated with birds and positively associated with contiguous forest and narrow trails. In contrast, dog Canis lupus familiaris occupancy was best predicted by wide trails, degraded forest and exotic civets. Our results suggest fosas are capable of traversing degraded landscapes and, in the short term, are resilient to contiguous forest disturbance. However, high occupancy of cats and dogs in the landscape leads to resource competition through prey exploitation and interference, increasing the risk of transmission of potentially fatal diseases. Management strategies for exotic carnivores should be considered, to reduce the widespread predation of endemic species and the transmission of disease.

Western Madagascar's deciduous forest is an important, threatened habitat to little-known Eupleridae, such as the fosa Cryptoprocta ferox. Using camera-trap grids established in two important deciduous forests, Ankarafantsika National Park and Andranomena Special Reserve, we explore the activity patterns of endemic and exotic carnivores and evaluate how exotics may be influencing fosa temporal activity across these two protected areas. Three methodologies, kernel density, circular and wave analysis, were used to evaluate the activity pattern overlap between exotic free-ranging cats Felis sp. and dogs Canis familiaris, exotic small Indian civets Viverricula indica and the endemic fosa. Our results showed fosas to be cathemeral, peaking in activity in the evening and at dawn. Cats were nocturnal, whilst also highly active at dusk. Civets did not display a dominant period of activity, but were relatively more active in the night, and at dusk. In contrast, dogs were diurnal and also active at dawn, in alignment with human activity. Fosa activity significantly overlapped with the nocturnal cat and civet, whilst being distinct from the diurnal dog and humans. Our results suggest that there is potentially a competitive impact of exotic free-ranging dogs and cats when present across fosas' dry forest habitat. This highlights the need for further examination into the impact of Madagascar's exotic carnivores, and the experimental trial to investigate the impact of their removal (or reduced abundance), on Madagascar's wildlife.

Fosas (Cryptoprocta ferox) are Madagascar's largest carnivores, occupying much of the island's forested landscape. This study provides the first evaluation of fosas' conflict with humans, a problem for many small and medium sized carnivores worldwide. We examined fosas' predation of poultry, and the subsequent retaliatory killing. Over 1750 households were interviewed across four regions, encompassing Madagascar's major forest types (deciduous/rainforest) and protected area classifications (national park, reserve and unprotected forest). Predation by fosa was the third highest reported cause (15%) of poultry mortality, with little evidence that coops were effective in reducing predation. Predation of poultry was more prevalent in deciduous forests, and most common during the evenings of the dry season. Over half of all interviewees said they disliked fosas, with loss of poultry the most commonly stated reason. Respondents' that had suffered poultry depredation and those with lower educational attainment were more likely to dislike fosas. Interviewees that disliked fosas and those that were wealthier were most likely to report having killed a fosa. A minimum of thirty fosas was killed in retaliation by our respondents during the year before the interviews. Given that the fosa population is in decline, and most of Madagascar's forests are likely to be too small to support sustainable populations, these killings may be detrimental to vulnerable sub-populations. These results shed insight into the cultural perceptions and predation patterns of a medium sized carnivore, with relevance to worldwide human-wildlife conflict of often overlooked smaller carnivores. We suggest that educational programs, guard dogs, poultry disease vaccinations and robust coop construction may be effective for improving attitudes and reducing retaliatory killing.

Bushmeat consumption in Madagascar is increasingly acknowledged as one of the major threats to its wild vertebrates. Nevertheless, few studies have examined the drivers of the consumption of protected versus legally huntable wild species, or examined its variance across Madagascar’s protected and unprotected areas. This research provides a novel study of the consumption of protected, unprotected, and fish/eel species between forest types (deciduous and rainforest), as well as across a gradient of protected habitat (National Park, Reserve, Unprotected). Members of 1750 households were interviewed across four regions, including two national parks, two reserves, and two unprotected forests. Household demographic, socioeconomic, cultural, and geographic variables were explored as possible predictors of bushmeat consumption. We found that poorer households reported consuming greater quantities of protected species whereas wealthier households reported consuming greater quantities of fish and eel. Households located inside Andasibe-Mantadia National Park, Madagascar’s most visited protected area, reported consuming the greatest quantities of protected species. Interviewees’ most favoured meat was from livestock, and fish. The consumption pattern of wild species reflected interviewees’ stated preference for species that are either unlisted (e.g. tilapia fish) under Malagasy species protection laws, classified as pest (e.g. bushpig) and/or game species (e.g. tenrec). Most protected species (such as lemurs and carnivorans) were interviewees’ least favoured wild meats. Given the lack of cultural affinity, and low preference for the consumption of most protected species, our results suggest that improving accessibility to domestic meat is a promising strategy for reducing the consumption of protected species.

The Florida manatee, Trichechus manatus latirostris, is a hindgut-fermenting herbivore. In winter, manatees migrate to warm water overwintering sites where they undergo dietary shifts and may suffer from cold-induced stress. Given these seasonally induced changes in diet, the present study aimed to examine variation in the hindgut bacterial communities of wild manatees overwintering at Crystal River, west Florida. Faeces were sampled from 36 manatees of known sex and body size in early winter when manatees were newly arrived and then in mid-winter and late winter when diet had probably changed and environmental stress may have increased. Concentrations of faecal cortisol metabolite, an indicator of a stress response, were measured by enzyme immunoassay. Using 454-pyrosequencing, 2027 bacterial operational taxonomic units were identified in manatee faeces following amplicon pyrosequencing of the 16S rRNA gene V3/V4 region. Classified sequences were assigned to eight previously described bacterial phyla; only 0.36% of sequences could not be classified to phylum level. Five core phyla were identified in all samples. The majority (96.8%) of sequences were classified as Firmicutes (77.3 ± 11.1% of total sequences) or Bacteroidetes (19.5 ± 10.6%). Alpha-diversity measures trended towards higher diversity of hindgut microbiota in manatees in mid-winter compared to early and late winter. Beta-diversity measures, analysed through PERMANOVA, also indicated significant differences in bacterial communities based on the season.

Dugongs (Dugong dugon) are marine mammals that obtain nutrients through hindgut fermentation of seagrass, however, the microbes responsible have not been identified. This study used denaturing gradient gel electrophoresis (DGGE) and 454-pyrosequencing to profile hindgut bacterial communities in wild dugongs. Faecal samples obtained from 32 wild dugongs representing four size/maturity classes, and two captive dugongs fed on cos lettuce were screened using DGGE. Partial 16S rRNA gene profiles of hindgut bacteria from wild dugong calves and juveniles were grouped together and were different to those in subadults and adults. Marked differences between hindgut bacterial communities of wild and captive dugongs were also observed, except for a single captive whose profile resembled wild adults following an unsuccessful reintroduction to the wild. Pyrosequencing of hindgut communities in two wild dugongs confirmed the stability of bacterial populations, and Firmicutes (average 75.6% of Operational Taxonomic Units [OTUs]) and Bacteroidetes (19.9% of OTUs) dominated. Dominant genera were Roseburia, Clostridium, and Bacteroides. Hindgut microbial composition and diversity in wild dugongs is affected by ontogeny and probably diet. In captive dugongs, the absence of the dominant bacterial DNA bands identified in wild dugongs is probably dependent upon prevailing diet and other captive conditions such as the use of antibiotics. This study represents a first step in the characterisation of a novel microbial ecosystem-the marine hindgut of Sirenia.