Abstract Liquid metal (LM) materials are redefining the design of soft and stretchable radio frequency (RF) devices by combining high electrical conductivity with mechanical reconfigurability. Recent advances demonstrate the use of LM in a wide range of RF components, including inductors, capacitors, antennas, and sensors, where geometry‐dependent electromagnetic properties enable new forms of wearable, bio‐integrated, and adaptive electronics. This review focuses on the underlying physics of RF loss in LM systems, including skin and proximity effects, magnetic and parasitic losses, and the influence of mechanical strain on resonant behavior. Beyond planar designs, emerging LM‐compatible fabrication methods such as freeze casting, 2.5D and 3D printing, and viscosity tuning are explored to construct conformal, high‐performance RF structures. Applications range from deformable Magnetic Resonance Imaging (MRI) coils and reconfigurable antennas to skin‐mounted wireless power transfer systems. The integration of LM with magnetic and dielectric materials to achieve multifunctional RF responses is also discussed. Finally, key opportunities in high‐frequency design, system‐level integration, and scalable soft manufacturing are outlined, positioning LM RF platforms as a versatile foundation for the next generation of communication, sensing, and biomedical technologies.

2D metal oxide semiconductors are promising wide band gap materials due to their high electron mobility and optical transparency, making them of significant interest for flexible transparent electronics. These high-performance, ultrathin (similar to 3 nm) semiconductors can be fabricated with vacuum-free Cabrera-Mott oxidation of the surface of liquid metals at the wafer-scale at ultralow temperatures (<200 degrees C), but harnessing this process requires precise nanoscale engineering of their electrostatic properties. Here, we report for the first time the tailoring of the solid phase crystallization of 2D InOx to enhance device performance via controlled orientation. Transmission electron microscopy and X-ray scattering studies reveal that low-temperature fabrication yields large, plate-like grains with substrate-aligned, preferential {400} texture, whereas higher processing temperatures result in mixed {222}/{400} orientations. Thin film transistors fabricated at just 175 degrees C from the preferentially {400} oriented films exhibit over 10 & times; higher performance than those with mixed {222}/{400} oriented films, with linear mobility as high as 33.8 cm(2)/Vs and on/off ratios greater than 10(6), outperforming other vacuum-free, printed metal oxides. These results reveal the unique opportunity for liquid metal interfaces to grow single-orientation high-mobility oxide semiconductors at low temperatures compatible with flexible polymer substrates.

Flexible optoelectronic systems face fundamental challenges, including scalable synthesis of uniform, high-performance semiconductors and sensitivity to defects from large-area fabrication. Low-temperature deposition of perovskites, organics, and compound semiconductors promises tunable absorption but introduces structural disorder and sub-gap states that degrade device metrics. Here, we harness electronic disorder in printed sensors via machine learning to decode the photoresponse of three-terminal indium oxysulfide phototransistors fabricated by vacuum-free liquid metal interfacial synthesis. These devices combine wafer-scale uniformity with broadband visible absorption, achieving responsivities >100 A/W and detectivities approaching 7 & times; 10(13) Jones. A cascaded classifier-regressor trained on gate-dependent photocurrent decodes illumination wavelengths (>95% accuracy) and intensities (10 mu W/cm(2)-10 mW/cm(2)) from a single voltage sweep-without filters or device arrays. To our knowledge, this is the first phototransistor to extract both color and brightness simultaneously. Exploiting disorder to reveal latent information enables low-cost, single-device sensing and multi-parameter detection in flexible electronics.

In solar cell research, transparent conducting electrodes (TCEs) are typically not included in device optimization. In this study, we investigate the properties of TCEs to identify the most important one(s) for the performance of large-area perovskite solar cells (PSCs), which is vital for advancing their commercial viability. By keeping the absorber and the PSC device structure constant, we pinpoint the TCE conductivity as the critical factor. We then design a hybrid TCE, composed of silver nanowires (AgNWs) and indium zinc oxide layers on a polyethylene terephthalate substrate, which has a sheet resistance ( R _□ ) lower by a factor of 2 (∼5.7 vs. 9.8 Ω □ ^−1 ), with only a minor trade-off in average transmittance and surface roughness. PSCs with a 1.4 cm ^2 device size fabricated on the lower- R _□ hybrid TCE have enhanced PSC performance due to improved fill factor (FF). Furthermore, we show that the FF and power conversion efficiency of the 1.4 cm ^2 area PSCs decrease with increasing series resistance, which is not observed for the 0.1 cm ^2 area PSCs. Finally, technology computer-aided design simulations further confirm the experimental results and indicate that the TCE R _□ must be below 10 Ω □ ^−1 to achieve good performance in large-area devices. These findings highlight the importance of TCE design for specific applications and that AgNW-based TCEs offer an effective pathway to improving the performance of large-area PSCs.

Flexible and printed transparent electronics are critical for next-generation wearable systems, large-area sensor backplanes, and conformal displays. However, scalable low-temperature manufacturing of mechanically robust, high-mobility oxide semiconductors remains a central challenge. Here, we report composition-controlled amorphization of ultrathin (~5 nm) indium tin oxide (ITO) fabricated via continuous liquid metal printing (CLMP), a vacuum-free additive process compatible with flexible substrates (< 200 °C). By tuning Sn composition, we engineer a transition from preferentially oriented polycrystalline ITO (10 at% Sn) to predominantly amorphous films (20 at% Sn), as confirmed by grazing-incidence wide-angle X-ray scattering. The amorphous phase exhibits enhanced mechanical resilience, maintaining stable resistance under cyclic bending to a 3 mm radius. Despite suppressed crystallinity, printed thin-film transistors achieve linear mobility $\gt \mathbf{5 0} \mathbf{~ c m}^{2} / V \mathbf{s}$, on/off ratio $\sim \mathbf{1 0}^{\boldsymbol{7}}$, steep subthreshold swing, and low hysteresis. Flexible top-gated devices fabricated on polyimide sustain stable operation under strain. These results show how liquid metal printing can help to overcome the conventional mobility-ductility tradeoff in oxide semiconductors and establish composition-engineered, liquid-metal-printed ITO as a scalable semiconductor platform for high-performance flexible and large-area electronic systems.

Developing a reliable and scalable fabrication technique is one of the most critical challenges for perovskite solar cells to achieve commercialization at terawatt-scale photovoltaic capacity. However, current methods for optimizing the processing parameters heavily rely on traditional manual screening, which is time-consuming and labor-intensive due to the large number of closely correlated variables. In this work, we leverage sequential machine learning (ML) methods to simultaneously optimize perovskite ink properties and printing parameters, aiming to maximize the optoelectronic uniformity of printed perovskite thin films. The perovskite films are fabricated using high-speed flexography (60 m/min), and spatial uniformity is quantified through scanning photoluminescence (PL) characterization. After five rounds of Bayesian optimization (BO) iterations, we achieve continuous improvement in film uniformity while reducing low-quality prints that are unsuitable for device fabrication. As a result, we demonstrated highly uniform perovskite films with a low coefficient of variance (COV) of < 4.1% in PL intensity and <0.26% variance in bandgap, resulting in solar cells with high photovoltaic power conversion efficiency (PCE) > 19.8%. This work provides valuable insights into how fluid dynamic properties influence the printing process and affect the final film uniformity, helping to overcome bottlenecks in the development of perovskite photovoltaic technology and advance its commercialization.

Two-level system (TLS) defects in dielectrics are a major source of decoherence in superconducting circuits, yet their microscopic origin and distribution remain poorly understood. Existing circuit-QED probes access limited frequency ranges and mode volumes, restricting studies of isolated materials and interfaces. Here, we present Broadband Cryogenic Transient Dielectric Spectroscopy (BCTDS), a technique for probing TLS-hosting materials over a broad frequency range at cryogenic temperatures. Under strong finite-duration microwave excitation, the transient homodyne I-Q response exhibits coherent phase dynamics after the drive is turned off. Fourier analysis of the transient phase reveals characteristic V-shaped structures that move between cooldowns, consistent with thermocycling-induced changes in the local TLS defect environment that shift defect resonance frequencies. The transient response of BCTDS further enables estimation of susceptibility and two-time correlation functions of the TLS defect ensemble. The observed phase dynamics are qualitatively captured by a driven standard tunneling model containing only a few representative TLS defects. Despite its simplicity relative to the full experimental ensemble, the model reproduces the essential Floquet-dressed dynamics during the drive and generates post-pulse V-shaped structures and interference fringes consistent with the experimental data. The observed BCTDS response may reflect a crossover from localized TLS defect dynamics to a delocalized regime under strong driving, before being quenched into a transient regime that reflects the TLS defect resonance frequencies. Overall, BCTDS represents a potentially useful broadband, time-resolved wafer-level approach for probing TLS defects relevant to quantum technologies.

A critical challenge in flexible high-performance thin-film transistors (TFTs) is ensuring the reliability of the dielectric layer with a high-mobility semiconductor, which must maintain its insulating properties while withstanding repeated mechanical deformation. In this study, we investigate photo-cross-linkable photosensitive polyimide (PSPI), 4,4'-(hexafluoroisopropylidene)diphthalic anhydride-3,5-diaminobenzyl cinnamate (6FDA/DABC), as a dielectric material in oxide TFTs using zinc tin oxide or indium gallium zinc oxide as the channel materials. The photo-cross-linked PSPI dielectric exhibited a high areal capacitance of 17.5 nF cm-2 at 1 kHz, an ultralow leakage current density of 10-10 A cm-2 at 2 MV cm-1, and a breakdown field exceeding 6.7 MV cm-1 under static conditions. Under repeated mechanical stress, the dielectric maintained its low leakage current and structural integrity after 10,000 bending cycles, ensuring a stable electrical performance. The photo-cross-linked PSPI and zinc tin oxide-based TFT device demonstrated excellent electrical characteristics, achieving a high mobility of 15.5 cm2 V-1·s-1, an on/off current ratio of 1.5 × 109, and good electrical stability under positive and negative bias stress, confirming its potential for high-performance, flexible TFT applications.

Metal-organic frameworks (MOFs) are promising electrocatalysts due to their large surface areas and abundant metal sites, but their efficacy is limited by poor exposure of active metal atoms to the electrolyte. To address this issue, we report an innovative approach that integrates a conductive layered MXene (Ti3C2Tx) with a 2-dimensional (2D) Ni3(2,3,6,7,10,11-hexaiminotriphenylene)2-MOF through in situ synthesis of the MOF on the MXene, maximizing the accessible exposure of active sites for electrocatalytic hydrogen evolution reaction (HER) activity. XPS analysis confirms that the MOF is chemically bonded with the MXene layers, while SEM analysis shows complete overlapping, intercalation, and surface growth of the MOF on the MXene layers. The optimized chemically bonded MOF on MXene exhibits superior electrocatalytic activity, with an overpotential of 180 mV in alkaline media-four times better than that of the pristine MOF-and an overpotential of 240 mV in acidic media, three times better than that of the pristine MOF. The enhanced electrocatalytic activity is attributed to the bond formation between Ti atoms from the MXene and N atoms from the MOF, which facilitates charge transfer and improves both the kinetics and active electrocatalytic area for the HER. This method offers a simple, pioneering approach to fabricate noble metal-free, nanostructured electrocatalysts, enhancing water electrolysis efficiency and extending applicability to other conductive MOFs.

Ultrathin 2D metal oxides are a high‐performance class of transparent conducting materials capable of overcoming the traditional limitations of inorganic flexible electronics. The low temperature, thermodynamically favorable synthesis of 2D oxides at liquid metal interfaces offers the potential for printing these materials over large areas at unprecedented speeds with sub‐nanometer scale precision. However, these native oxides are sub‐stoichiometric and highly conductive, so new strategies are needed that can precisely engineer the electrostatics and enhance stability. In this work, the crystalline vs. amorphous phase of 2D oxides is engineered via alloying of ternary In 1‐y Sn y O x and ultralow deposition temperatures (120–160 °C) are afforded by In‐Sn eutectics. This approach is extended to rapid assembly of nanoscale (3–5 nm per layer) vertical 2D homojunctions with electrostatically favorable grading from high density of states front channels to lower density of states back‐channels. Detailed materials characterization reveals how this platform enhances electron mobility while improving resilience under bias‐stress in metal oxide transistors. Devices based on amorphous 2D oxide homojunctions with high‐k sol‐gel ZrO x dielectrics achieve excellent electron mobility (30 cm 2 /V·s), steep switching (SS of 100 mV dec −1 ), I on/off of 10 7 and 10X reduced bias‐stress shifts, presenting an ideal strategy for high‐performance flexible oxide electronics.

The development of scalable and cost‐effective electrocatalysts is pivotal for a sustainable energy transition toward green hydrogen production. A scalable approach integrating surface morphology regulation with the transformation of 3D printed photopolymers into bimetallic transition metal/metal oxide ((Co/CoO x )(Ni/NiO x )) and carbon core‐shell microlattice electrodes for efficient electrocatalytic water splitting is presented. By precisely tuning the cobalt and nickel metal infusion, optimized conformally‐grown heterostructures have been achieved on carbon microlattices. These microlattices, featuring dual active sites and tunable electronic structures, significantly enhance reaction kinetics and improve electrocatalytic performance. Furthermore, 3D microlattices leverage mesoscale (100–200 µm) pores, which facilitate electrolyte accessibility, maximize utilization of active sites, and enable rapid bubble evolution. This structural advantage enhances catalytic efficiency and improves long‐term operational stability. The resultant core‐shell structures ((Co/CoO x ) 2 (Ni/NiO x )C) demonstrate exceptional activity for the hydrogen evolution reaction (HER), achieving low overpotential (130 mV at 10 mA cm 2 ) and Tafel slope (124 mV dec −1 ) in an alkaline medium. Moreover, these electrodes exhibit remarkable durability, maintaining stable performance over 100 h and outperforming state‐of‐the‐art Ni foam‐based electrodes. These findings highlight a scalable and effective strategy for designing advanced electrodes for hydrogen production, paving the way for their practical implementation in sustainable energy systems.

The development of efficient and stable catalysts for energy applications, such as water splitting, is crucial for advancing sustainable energy technologies. Achieving this requires a deep understanding of the structural and chemical transformations that govern catalytic performance. This study builds upon our previously developed novel approach, Polymer Infusion Additive Manufacturing (PIAM) [1] , to fabricate 3D-printed microlattice electrodes as shown in Figure 1a . PIAM takes full advantage of 3D printing to seamlessly integrate both the catalyst and current collector into a single, cohesive architecture. This architecture features a conductive carbon core surrounded by a metal/metal oxide shell ( Figure 1b) that enhances hydrogen and oxygen evolution reactions (HER/OER). While it has been established that this design improves mechanical stability, promotes superior mass transport, and optimizes catalytic activity, the interaction between the metal ions and formulated polymer resins, as well as the parameters that can be used to tune their performance, remain poorly understood. In this study, the 3D electrocatalysts are derived from polyethylene glycol diacrylate (PEGDA) infused with transition metal nitrates (Copper, Cobalt, Nickel, and Iron). By systematically varying calcination temperatures (450–650°C) under vacuum and incorporating a reduction step in a forming gas-rich environment, we provide critical insights into the effects of thermal processing on phase evolution, crystallinity, and catalytic activity, advancing the development of high-performance electrocatalysts for sustainable energy applications. Thermal stability was analyzed using thermogravimetric analysis (TGA), revealing distinct decomposition peaks: Copper at 391°C, Nickel at 383°C, and Cobalt at 384°C. Iron showed two peaks at 376°C and 408°C, corresponding to the transformation of iron nitrate to iron oxide phases (FeO and Fe₂O₃). Nickel microlattices exhibited the greatest mass loss, while Iron microlattices had the least, highlighting the influence of metal type on thermal robustness. Analyzing the pure PEGDA microlattice annealed at varying temperatures showed a steady increase in graphitization and ordered structure with rising temperature. Raman spectroscopy further revealed how metal infusion influences the carbon structure within PEGDA microlattices. The pure PEGDA microlattice showed a broad D-band (1349 cm⁻¹, FWHM = 284 cm⁻¹) and a narrow G-band (1586 cm⁻¹, FWHM = 94 cm⁻¹), indicating significant disorder and moderate graphitic ordering. Nickel reduced the D-band width (disordered structure at 1363 cm⁻¹) to 242 cm⁻¹, suggesting enhanced graphitic ordering, while Copper exhibited the broadest D-band (342 cm⁻¹), indicating significant structural disorder. Iron and Cobalt also improved graphitic ordering, but residual defects remained, indicating moderate conductivity potential. Surface morphology analysis via SEM and optical microscopy ( Figure 1c ) confirmed these structural trends as Copper-infused microlattices displayed wrinkled, porous surfaces, indicative of high disorder, while Nickel, Iron, and Cobalt-infused microlattices exhibited smoother, more ordered surfaces. X-ray diffraction (XRD) analysis was used to investigate the relationship between thermal treatment, structural changes, and phase evolution of the catalysts. At 450°C, Cobalt predominantly exhibited cobalt oxide (Co₃O₄) phases, while Copper, Nickel, and Iron displayed peaks corresponding to both metallic and metal oxide phases. At lower calcination temperatures (450°C), the catalysts displayed mixed metal/metal oxide phases, with the transition to predominantly metal oxide phases occurring at higher temperatures (650°C). Although this transition made the microlattices more brittle, it also contributed to improved catalytic performance, as evidenced by the decline in overpotential for hydrogen and oxygen evolution reactions (HER/OER). Post-LSV XRD analysis further indicated that Nickel microlattices retained and intensified their metallic phase peaks, while Copper showed an increase in metal oxide peaks. Iron stabilized as Fe₂O₃, with no metallic phases detected, indicating significant oxidation during electrochemical reactions. Including a reduction step at 500°C in a forming gas environment, the microlattices exhibited predominantly metallic phases which resulted in lower catalytic performance. The previous study [1] demonstrated that these microlattice structures can achieve competitive electrocatalytic performance, such as HER overpotentials of 145 mV and OER overpotentials of 1.4 V at 10mA/cm 2 under optimized conditions. Building on this, our current work investigates how thermal annealing processes influence the electrochemical performance of metal-infused microlattices by modulating their phase composition and crystallinity. Nickel's retained metallic phases, for instance, resulted in improved catalytic stability, while Iron's predominantly oxide phase was correlated with higher OER activity. Conversely, Copper’s increased oxide content due to annealing was associated with diminished catalytic efficiency. These findings highlight the importance of thermal treatment and phase stability in enhancing electrochemical activity, offering a blueprint for designing tunable catalysts for sustainable energy applications. Figure 1

Two-dimensional (2D) metal oxide semiconductors offer a superlative combination of high electron mobility and visible-range transparency uniquely suitable for flexible transparent electronics. Synthesis of these ultra-thin (<3 nm) semiconductors by Cabrera-Mott oxidation of liquid metals could enable emerging device applications but requires the precise design of their electrostatics at the nanoscale. This study demonstrates subnanometer-level control over the thickness of semiconducting 2D antimony-doped indium oxide (AIO) by manipulating the kinetics of Cabrera-Mott oxidation through variable-speed liquid metal printing at plastic-compatible temperatures (175 degrees C). By modulating both the growth kinetics and doping, we engineer the conductivity and crystallinity of AIO for integration in ultrathin channel transistors exhibiting exceptional steep turn-on, on-off ratios > 106 and an outstanding average mobility of 34.7 +/- 12.9 cm(2)/Vs. This result shows the potential for kinetically controlling 2D oxide synthesis for various high-performance optoelectronic device applications.

Printed metal halide perovskites can enable rapid, roll-to-roll manufacturing of a broad class of optoelectronics-flexible solar cells and imagers among them-while promising cost and speed advantages over incumbent silicon. However, though current methods offer high throughput and patterning capabilities, perovskite films' spatial heterogeneity remains a challenge for large-area devices. Here, a spatial-uniformity-driven Bayesian optimization (BO) approach is leveraged to accelerate the development of printed perovskite solar cells and improve large-area device performance. Using a BO surrogate model, a 6D design space of ink chemistry and printing physics is explored via extensive iterative experimentation (≈100) informed by an objective function capturing spatial photoluminescence (PL) variance. It is discovered that optimizing for uniformity drives rapid advances in photovoltaic performance, yielding ≈20% power conversion efficiency (PCE) for small area (0.134 cm2) devices and > 16% for large area (1 cm2) devices. This machine-learning approach simultaneously enables rheological comparison of ink formulations that accelerate the leveling of Saffman-Taylor artifacts and improve film uniformity. This showcases uniformity-driven BO as an efficient approach for uncovering the key printing physics and mitigating spatial heterogeneity to enable device scaling beyond small cell areas.

3D architected electrodes offer inherent physicochemical advantages for energy storage, conversion, and sensing. 3D printing methods such as stereolithography and two photon polymerization are uniquely capable of fabricating these architected electrodes with a high degree of geometric complexity impossible to achieve with other methods at the mesoscale (10 µm-1 mm). The material set for 3D printing traditionally is focused on structural materials rather than functional materials suitable for electronic and electrochemical applications. In this review the fundamental challenges are considered for transforming 3D printed materials into conductive, multifunctional electrodes suitable for electrical and electrochemical devices by printing nanocomposites, infusing molecular precursors and post-processing these structures via carbonization. To understand the design of 3D electrodes toward their use in both sensors and electrochemical devices such as catalysts, this review summarizes recent advances in hierarchical design of porous metastructures, the engineering of mass transport and electronic transport in 3D structures, and the application of high-throughput materials design by machine learning and artificial intelligence. These emerging approaches to 3D electrode design and architecture promise to expand the capabilities of additive manufacturing beyond structural materials and bring its advantages to bear on modern devices such as sensors, batteries, supercapacitors, and electrocatalysts.

The advancement of bone tissue engineering relies on the development of scaffolds that combine structural integrity with bioactivity. This study introduces a novel composite scaffold integrating three-dimensional (3D) printed hydroxyapatite (HA)-wollastonite (WOL) gyroid lattices with chitosan-gelatin cryogels, designed to fulfill these dual requirements. The HA-WOL lattices were fabricated using digital light processing (DLP) 3D-printing and subjected to optimized thermal treatment cycles demonstrating statistically superior compressive modulus and ultimate strength. This thermal process facilitated the phase transformation of HA-WOL to bioactive β-tricalcium phosphate (β-TCP) and silicocarnotite mixed phases, with MG63 (osteoblast-like) cell culture revealing significantly enhanced viability and biocompatibility. The chitosan-gelatin polymer network was successfully incorporated into the lattice, resulting in a composite scaffold with retained relative swelling capacity, improved mechanical stability, and superior bioactivity compared to cryogel-only constructs. Additional MG63 cell culture studies revealed that the composite scaffold supported cell viability and proliferation into the constructs, demonstrating its potential to conduct tissue regeneration across bone defects. This work highlights the synergistic effects of integrating bioactive ceramics with polymer-based cryogels, offering a promising solution to address bone regeneration in orthopaedic reconstruction. Future research will focus on in vivo validation and optimization of scaffold architecture to further enhance clinical relevance. This study paves the way for next-generation composite scaffolds capable of bridging the gap between mechanical integrity and biological performance in bone regeneration.

We present a method of fabricating uniform, large area indium oxysulfide ($\mathrm{InO}_{\mathrm{x}} \mathrm{S}_{\mathrm{y}}$) films using a vacuum-free continuous liquid metal printing method (CLMP) and sulfurization process for high-performance multi-wavelength photodetection. CLMP enables rapid printing of wide area ($\gt10 \mathrm{~cm}^{2} / \mathrm{s}$) metal oxide films of single nmscale thickness at process temperatures just above $150^{\circ} \mathrm{C}$, which can be partially converted to metal oxy-chalcogenide thin films at back-end-of line (BEOL) process temperatures. Phototransistors fabricated from 16 nm-thick $\mathrm{InO}_{\mathrm{x}} \mathrm{S}_{\mathrm{y}}$ achieved responsivities as high as $280 \mathrm{~A} / \mathrm{W}$ and respond to wavelengths as long as 630 nm, enabling both classification of multiple wavelengths and readout of intensity assisted by machine learning models.

In this paper, we model the performance of mm-scale optical power transmission to enable power electronics applications such as compact, high-efficiency optically-isolated gate drivers. We develop a model integrating the efficiency of the optical emitter and photovoltaic (PV) cell as well as the geometry of their optical coupling. A detailed analysis of the wavelength and intensity-dependent efficiency of light emitting diodes (LEDs), lasers, and PV cells from among Si, GaAs, and InGaP technologies provides benchmark data to understand the scaling limits of this system. Based on these models, we present a regime of sizes and power densities over which optical power transmission could outperform traditional magnetics in applications requiring high-voltage isolation. We show that despite moderate total system efficiency in the range of 15%-40%, optical power transfer has significantly better scaling to sizes in the sub-mm2 regime with higher isolation voltages while affording a number of system-level advantages.

This work explores the implications of mounting and fixturing of piezoelectric resonators (PRs) for applications in inductorless DC-DC power conversion. From a scalability and packaging perspective, various mounting strategies are evaluated, and impacts of solder bonding of PRs on performance and losses are quantified. COMSOL simulations are performed to verify shifts in PR resonance. Insights from fixturing are applied to assess the impact of mass augmentation strategies on mechanical losses and understand the feasibility of achieving higher power densities. Fixtured and augmented PRs are subsequently evaluated in a DC-DC converter to test the influence on converter efficiency.

Transparent conductive oxides (TCOs) are a high-performance material system that could enable new wearable sensors and electronics, but traditional fabrication methods face scalability and performance challenges. In this work, we utilize liquid metal printing to produce ultrathin two-dimensional (2D) indium tin oxide (ITO) films with superior microstructural, optical, and electrical properties compared to conventional techniques. We investigate the dynamics of grain growth and its influence on conductivity and the optical properties of 2D ITO, demonstrating the tunability through annealing and multilayer deposition. Additionally, we develop Au-decorated transparent electrodes, showcasing their adhesion and flexibility, low contact impedance, and biocompatibility. Leveraging the transparency of these electrodes, we enable enhanced simultaneous multimodal biosignal acquisition by integrating biopotential-based methods, such as electrocardiogram (ECG) or bioimpedance sensing (e.g., impedance plethysmography, IPG), with optical modalities like photoplethysmography (PPG). This study establishes CLMP-fabricated flexible 2D TCOs as a versatile platform for advanced bioelectronic systems and multimodal diagnostics.