Herpes simplex virus type 2 (HSV-2) is a widespread sexually transmitted pathogen responsible for genital herpes and associated with serious complications, including neonatal infections and increased HIV susceptibility. Although antiviral agents such as acyclovir are available, the emergence of drug resistance and viral latency necessitate the development of novel therapeutic approaches. RNA interference has emerged as a promising strategy against HSV-2. In our previous work, we identified a combination of five host-targeting microRNAs - miR-374a, miR-181a, miR-195, miR-29b, and miR-211, that significantly inhibited HSV-2 replication through modulation of the PI3K/AKT (phosphoinositide 3-kinase/protein kinase B) signaling pathway. In the current study, we developed a mesoporous silica nanoparticle (MSN)-based delivery system to enhance the stability of this miR-Combo. The MSN formulation was characterized for particle size, polydispersity index, zeta potential and surface morphology of developed particles by transmission electron microscopy analysis. In vitro studies in THP-1 macrophages confirmed the formulation’s biocompatibility and potent antiviral activity. Moreover, in a murine model of genital HSV-2 infection, intravaginal administration of the miRNA-loaded nanoparticles (N-miR-Combo) significantly reduced viral gene expression at both transcriptional and translational levels. Furthermore, N-miR-Combo significantly suppressed HSV-2-induced pro-inflammatory mediators, while concurrently upregulating the anti-inflammatory cytokine, demonstrating dual antiviral and immunomodulatory activity relevant to HSV-2-associated immunopathology. These findings highlight the promise of MSN-mediated combinatorial miRNA delivery as an innovative and promising preclinical candidate for further therapeutic development against HSV-2 infection and antiviral resistance.

The management of Herpes simplex virus (HSV) and human immunodeficiency virus (HIV) co-infection is severely hindered by the poor oral bioavailability and restricted blood-brain barrier (BBB) penetration of conventional antiviral therapies. In this study, a novel triple drug-loaded nanoemulsion containing saquinavir (SQV), ritonavir (RTV) and acyclovir (ACV) was developed and optimized using a Central Composite Rotatable Design (CCRD) to enhance systemic absorption and brain exposure. The formulation was prepared via ultrasonication and characterized for droplet size, zeta potential, and rheological properties. The optimized nanoemulsion exhibited favorable physicochemical characteristics, including nanometric droplet size, acceptable size distribution, high transparency, and good stability. In vitro release (p < 0.0001) and ex vivo permeation studies (p < 0.05) demonstrated significantly higher drug flux compared to the drug suspension. Pharmacokinetic profiling in Wistar rats confirmed a prominent increase in systemic exposure (p < 0.001). The nanoemulsion also significantly increased drug concentrations in brain tissue compared with the corresponding suspension formulation (p < 0.001), indicating enhanced brain exposure of all three antiviral agents. These findings suggest that the triple drug-loaded nanoemulsion represents a promising oral delivery platform improves the pharmacokinetic performance and brain exposure of antiviral agents, with potential application in the management of HIV-1 and HSV co-infections. Triple-drug nanoemulsion developed for HIV/HSV co-infection management. QbD-optimized formulation achieved an ultra-fine 46.10 nm droplet size. Enhanced oral bioavailability and drug permeation vs. conventional drug suspension. Significant increase in brain exposure of ACV, SQV, and RTV in-vivo. Effective oral nano-platform for enhancing drug exposure in brain tissue.

Herpes simplex virus (HSV) infections are commonly treated with antiviral drugs; however, many of these therapeutics exhibit limited oral bioavailability. Consequently, high and frequent dosing is often required to maintain therapeutic plasma concentrations, which may increase the risk of adverse effects. In recent years, nanotechnology-based drug delivery systems have emerged as promising strategies to overcome these limitations by improving drug stability, bioavailability and targeted distribution. A wide range of nanocarrier platforms, including nanoparticles (NPs), nanocomposites, nanodroplets, nanohybrids, solid lipid nanoparticles (SLNs), silver nanoparticles (AgNPs) and mesoporous silica nanoparticles (MSNs), have been investigated for HSV therapy. These nanocarriers enable controlled drug delivery and enhanced cellular uptake, while surface-engineering approaches further improve site-specific targeting, therapeutic efficacy and cellular internalisation. This review provides a comprehensive overview of recent advances in nanotechnology-driven drug delivery strategies for HSV treatment, with particular emphasis on surface-engineered nanocarriers. A systematic literature search was conducted across major scientific databases and search engines, including Google Scholar, ScienceDirect, PubMed and Embase, using keywords such as "nanoparticles", "blood-brain barrier", "nanocarriers", "surface modification" and "nanocarriers for HSV". We discuss current surface modification strategies applied to antiviral-loaded nanocarriers and highlight their potential to enhance bioavailability, improve targeting precision and ultimately improve therapeutic outcomes in HSV management.

Antiretroviral therapy (ART) has markedly improved the prognosis of individuals living with Human Immunodeficiency Virus (HIV); however, persistent challenges such as drug resistance, systemic toxicity, suboptimal pharmacokinetics, and limited penetration across the Blood Brain Barrier (BBB) continue to hinder complete viral suppression, particularly within central nervous system reservoirs. These limitations necessitate the development of advanced drug delivery strategies capable of achieving targeted and sustained therapeutic effects. In this context, nanotechnology-based drug delivery systems have emerged as promising platforms to enhance the efficacy of antiretroviral agents. Among these, surface-tailored nanocarriers, especially ligand-functionalized systems, offer significant advantages by enabling receptor-specific targeting, improved BBB translocation, controlled drug release, and enhanced bioavailability. The research findings focusing on ligand-conjugated nanocarriers for brain-targeted delivery of antiretroviral drugs were collected from databases such as PubMed, ScienceDirect, and Google Scholar, using keywords including “ligands,” “HIV infection,” “conjugation,” “nanocarriers,” and “surface modification”. These studies were critically analyzed to compare ligand-conjugated and non-conjugated systems, highlighting their relative efficiency in enhancing targeted drug delivery. Building on this analysis, the review presents a comprehensive and critical evaluation of diverse nanocarrier platforms, including polymeric nanoparticles, lipid-based systems, dendrimers, nanocomposites, and metallic nanoparticles, with a specific focus on surface modification strategies. Special emphasis is placed on ligand-mediated targeting approaches, their underlying mechanisms, and their comparative effectiveness in directing antiretroviral drugs to HIV reservoirs. In addition, this review highlights current advancements, key challenges, and translational limitations associated with surface-engineered nanocarriers, offering insights into their potential role in improving therapeutic outcomes. By integrating recent developments and identifying existing gaps, this work underscores the potential of ligand-based nanocarrier systems as a transformative approach toward more precise, efficient, and long-acting HIV management strategies.

The integration of nanotechnology into antiretroviral drug delivery systems presents a promising avenue to address challenges posed by long-term antiretroviral therapies (ARTs), including poor bioavailability, drug-induced toxicity, and resistance. These limitations impact the therapeutic effectiveness and quality of life for individuals living with HIV. Nanodrug delivery systems, particularly nanoemulsions, have demonstrated potential in improving drug solubility, enhancing bioavailability, and minimizing systemic toxicity. Moreover, nanodrug platforms can target viral reservoirs, potentially reducing the emergence of drug-resistant strains—a significant challenge in anti-HIV treatment. This study evaluates the biological efficacy of a rosemary oil-based nanoemulsion loaded with Nelfinavir (NFV) and Epigallocatechin Gallate (EGCG), which demonstrated HIV-1 suppression at sub-CC₅₀ concentrations across two distinct cellular systems. The synergistic interaction between NFV and EGCG was confirmed through cellular assays, enzymatic studies, and molecular interaction analysis. In vitro experiments revealed that the NE-NFV-EGCG nanoemulsion exhibited enhanced HIV-1 inhibitory activity compared to pure NFV, highlighting a promising therapeutic synergy. The findings suggest that EGCG could be a valuable adjunct in NFV-based regimens for HIV management. Molecular interaction studies further confirmed the nanoemulsion’s inhibitory potential against the HIV-1 protease enzyme. This study marks a significant advancement in HIV-1 treatment by documenting, for the first time, the synergistic inhibitory activity of NFV and EGCG. The novel nanoformulation offers improved oral bioavailability, minimal side effects, and enhanced therapeutic outcomes. Future studies are needed to optimize the formulation for clinical applications, including sustained drug release and drug transport mechanisms.

Background: The study aimed to enhance the efficacy of periodontal treatment through the development of dual drug-loaded nanoparticles (NPs) of metronidazole (MET) and green tea extract (GTE). Materials and Methods: The NPs were prepared by solvent displacement, optimized by central composite rotatable design. The particle size, polydispersity index (PDI), and entrapment efficiency were assessed. The cell viability was assessed using the L929 mouse fibroblast cell lines. In addition, texture analysis, flux, and permeability coefficient of MET and GTE gel were measured. Minimum inhibitory concentration (MIC) was assessed on isolates obtained from periodontal patients. Hen’s egg test–chorioallantoic membrane (HET-CAM) study was conducted to assess the irritability and tolerability of NPs. Results: The optimized NPs had a mean particle size of 171.0 ± 49.34 nm, a mean PDI of 0.383 ± 0.907, and a high entrapment efficacy of 89% ± 0:25%. Cell viability assay demonstrated 93.8% viability on mouse fibroblast cell lines. Texture analysis of NP-loaded gel showed high cohesiveness, less firmness, and consistency. The flux and permeability coefficient of MET and GTE was found to be 9.084 µg/h/cm2, 7.8005 µg/h/cm2, 0.0036 cm/h, and 0.0039 cm/h. The confocal study showed an increase in the depth of NPs due to their nanosized particles. The MIC values were 400 µg/mL for MET and 500 µg/mL for GTE against periodontal isolates. HET-CAM study illustrates that the NPs are secure, nonirritating, and well tolerated for periodontal disease. Conclusions: Dual-drug-loaded NPs exhibited significant antimicrobial activity against periodontal pathogens and demonstrated promising potential to enhance the clinical outcomes of periodontal therapy.

The emergence of plant based metallic nanoparticles (PMNPs) offers a transformative approach to diabetes therapeutics by merging nanotechnology with green synthesis for enhanced biocompatibility and eco-sustainability. Derived from phytochemical rich plant extracts, PMNPs including gold, silver, zinc oxide and selenium exhibit potent antidiabetic properties through modulation of oxidative stress, insulin sensitivity and β-cell regeneration. Their bio-reductive synthesis not only eliminates hazardous reagents but also harnesses phytoconstituents for targeted delivery and controlled drug release. Recent studies highlight their ability to inhibit key enzymes like α-amylase and α-glucosidase, reduce glucose uptake and improve lipid profiles, positioning them as multifunctional agent in managing Type 2 diabetes. Furthermore, their nanoscale dimensions enable precision medicine application, including sensor-integrated diagnostics and nano-formulated oral therapies. Notably, emerging evidence underscores the role of microRNAs especially miR-21 and miR-12a in regulating pancreatic function and insulin signaling, with PMNP-based systems offering enhanced sensitivity and specificity in miRNA detection. This review explores the therapeutic mechanisms and translational promise of PMNPs and miRNA-based strategies in diabetes care, advocating for integrative, sustainable nanomedicine.

Parkinson’s disease (PD) is the most prominent and highly prevalent chronic neuro-degenerative disease generally recognized by classical motor symptoms which are linked with genetic mutation, Lewy bodies, and subsequently selective loss of nigrostriatal dopaminergic neurons. The blood–brain barrier (BBB) and blood-cerebrospinal fluid barrier protect the central nervous system against toxins and are the most significant barriers to effective brain drug delivery in managing Parkinsonism. In recent years, intranasal delivery has attracted remarkable attention for brain targeting as the drug can be administered to the brain directly from the nose employing the trigeminal and olfactory pathways. For brain targeting through nasal delivery, several advanced and promising formulation techniques have been investigated globally. Nanoemulsions are regarded as an innovative carrier approach for PD, where these provide targeted administration and enhanced bioavailability of neurotherapeutics. This manuscript provides deeper insight into the pathophysiology of PD, various drug delivery strategies to overcome BBB, and the potential role of nanoemulsions via the intranasal route. Various research findings on the intranasal administration of nanoemulsions and their pivotal applications in the treatment of PD have also been embarked. The potential role of phytoconstituents and surface-modified nanoemulsions for the effective treatment of PD has also been reflected along with current challenges and future perspectives in this avenue.

BACKGROUND:Neuropathic pain is a complex chronic condition resulting from the damage or dysfunction of the nervous system. Conventional therapies offer limited success and often come with various adverse effects. Therefore, the exploration of alternative therapies, such as phytoconstituents, may be of substantial interest for their potential to alleviate neuropathic pain. OBJECTIVES:This review systematically examines the diverse roles and mechanisms of various phytoconstituents in modulating neuropathic pain. In this study, a comprehensive analysis of phytoconstituents in neuropathic pain is carried out to understand their mechanism in preventing the disease. METHODS:The current search is done in the databases of Google Scholar, PubMed Central, ScienceDirect, and Scopus using the keywords: neuropathic pain, phytoconstituents as analgesics, physiological effects of medicinal plants, and natural products, to find the most relevant articles of the last 10 years. RESULTS:Out of 125 articles, 112 were included in this study, which revealed that several phytoconstituents inhibit several biomarkers responsible for neuropathic pain. Moreover, this review highlights the underlying molecular pathways and targets through which these bioactive compounds exert their therapeutic effects, emphasizing their potential as novel pharmacological agents. CONCLUSION:This study concludes that phytoconstituents may possess potential applications in managing neuropathic pain and could be effectively used as an alternative approach to mitigate the condition with enhanced risk of safety and tolerability.

Glioblastoma (GBM) is a form of brain tumor, and the line of treatment includes the administration of temozolomide (TMZ). Due to the short life of TMZ, high doses are recommended, which leads to drug-induced adverse reactions. In this study, TMZ and Quercetin (QUE) loaded nanoemulsion was developed using a Quality by Design (QbD) approach for the treatment of GBM. The efficacy of TMZ and QUE was assessed through in silico studies, which revealed a synergistic effect of the drugs. Afterward, cellular assays using U87 MG cell lines demonstrated that the optimal ratio of TMZ to QUE (1:8 μg/mL) yielded a synergistic therapeutic effect. Thus, the ratio of TMZ to QUE was considered to design the formulation. The nanoemulsion was optimized by using a central composite rotatable design (CCRD). The prepared nanoemulsion was characterized by a droplet size of 84.91 ± 2.17 nm with a polydispersity index (PDI) value of 0.20 ± 0.01, zeta potential -7.7 ± 0.34 mV,

The dual global burden of Human immunodeficiency virus (HIV) infection and cancer demands innovative, cost-effective, and integrated therapeutic strategies. Among emerging approaches, plant-derived phytoconstituents have attracted growing interest for their dual therapeutic actions, exhibiting both antiretroviral and anticancer properties. This strategy's uniqueness comes from its multi-target mechanism, in which one phytoconstituent may lower oxidative stress or oncogenic signaling, while another may block viral enzymes or alter immunological responses. In addition to improving therapeutic efficacy, this dual-action synergy lowers the possibility of toxicity and drug resistance, which are frequently observed with synthetic medicines. Although the advent of antiretroviral therapy has greatly improved the management of HIV and related conditions, HIV-associated cancers continue to be a major cause of illness and death among individuals living with HIV/ acquired immune deficiency syndrome (AIDS). The immunocompromised state caused by HIV infection increases susceptibility to a range of malignancies, including both AIDS-defining and non-AIDS-defining cancers. However, phytoconstituents face several limitations, including poor stability, rapid metabolism, low oral bioavailability, and limited solubility, all of which reduce their therapeutic efficacy. With the help of nanocarrier-based delivery methods, additional preclinical and clinical validation could hasten their transition from lab study to clinical use in the treatment of HIV-associated cancers. This review compiles phytoconstituents with both anti-HIV and anticancer activities, discusses their mechanisms of action, and highlights their translational potential as promising candidates for future integrative and complementary therapeutic strategies. Relevant literature search covered studies published between 2000 and 2024, using databases like Science Direct, PubMed, Embase, Google Scholar, and other biomedical research databases using specific keyword combinations, including “AIDS”, “Nanocarrier”, “phytoconstituents”, “Nanocarriers for HIV”, and “cancer”. Only peer-reviewed articles focusing on the dual anti-HIV and anticancer activity of plant-derived phytoconstituents were included, while studies lacking experimental or mechanistic evidence were excluded.

A nanostructured lipid carrier containing combined curcumin (CUR) and resveratrol (RSV) was prepared and tested for its potential to accelerate wound healing through topical administration. Prepared nano lipid carrier (NLC) formulation had a particle size of 132.3 +/- 4.54 nm, polydispersity index (PDI) of 0.478, and zeta potential of -16.6 mV. Entrapment efficiency (EE) for CUR and RSV was found to be 94.21 +/- 0.28% and 84.61 +/- 0.15%, respectively. Drug loading was found to be 8.560 +/- 0.948% (for CUR) and 7.602 +/- 0.452% (for RSV). NLC formulation was converted to NLC gel by incorporation of Carbopol 934 for enhancing its dermal applicability. Flux and permeability coefficient for CUR and RSV in NLC gel was found to be 22.087 mu g/cm(2)/h, 11.299 mu g/cm(2)/h, and 0.2208, 0.1129, respectively, through goat ear skin and 19.213 mu g/cm(2)/h, 22.66 mu g/cm(2)/h and 0.1921, 0.2266, respectively, through Strat-M (TM) membrane. Dermatokinetic study revealed significant enhancement in C-skin max and AUC(0-12h) in skin sample treated with NLC gel in comparison with plain gel. Also, NLC gel showed longer retention time which indicates prolonged drug action at targeted site thus, NLC gel may show better therapeutic efficacy than plain gel.

Antiretroviral Therapy (ART) has significantly enhanced the life expectancy of individuals living with HIV, yet it has introduced novel challenges such as drug resistance, HIV-associated dementia (HAD), and various neurological complications. Overcoming obstacles such as limited access to antiretroviral drugs across the blood-brain barrier (BBB) has become crucial in managing NeuroAIDS. Recent efforts have focused on achieving targeted and sustained drug delivery through the development of innovative nanocarrier systems. Researchers in recent years have dedicated their efforts to enhancing the delivery of antiretrovirals to the brain. Various nanocarrier systems, including polymeric, metal-based, and cell-based nanoparticles, as well as nanosuspensions and nanodiamonds, have been employed to address the challenges associated with NeuroAIDS management. This review aims to highlight the scientific advancements in nanotechnology-based approaches for managing NeuroAIDS. A comprehensive and systematic search of databases such as PubMed, Embase, Science Direct, Google Scholar, and other biomedical research databases was conducted with specific keyword combinations, including “NeuroAIDS”, “Nanoparticles”, “Antiretrovirals”, “Nanocarriers for NeuroAIDS”, and “Blood-Brain-Barrier”, to gather relevant literature. This review provides a synthesis of the current state of knowledge in the field, shedding light on the promising strides made in leveraging nanotechnology for effective NeuroAIDS management.

Meningitis, a deadly ailment that affects the central nervous system (CNS), involves the inflammation of the brain and spinal cord's protective membrane, known as meninges. This condition can arise due to infections caused by bacteria, viruses, or fungi. Among the bacterial culprits, Listeria monocytogenes, Streptococcus pneumoniae, Neisseria meningitidis, Escherichia coli, and H. influenzae type b (Hib) have been identified as potential causes of bacterial meningitis. While fungal-induced meningitis is relatively are, cryptococcal meningitis has been distinguished as a notable exception. Research elucidates that the majority of viral meningitis cases worldwide are attributed to enteroviruses (EVs). In this chapter, we explore molecular and cellular concepts that underlie the mechanisms of pathogen invasion into the CNS. This further encompasses the structural elements of the CNS compartments, which affect the entry of pathogens. Additionally, we present the recent findings regarding the pathways exploited by pathogens to facilitate CNS infections. Thus, this chapter serves to offer valuable insights into the prevalence, incidence, and management of meningitis in both developed and developing nations. By understanding the fundamental aspects of pathogen invasion and CNS interactions, healthcare professionals and researchers can strive to improve prevention strategies and therapeutic interventions for this critical neurological disorder.

Erlotinib is a reversible epidermal growth factor receptor (EGFR) tyrosine kinase inhibitor that acts by inhibiting signaling pathways, resulting in the disruption of cancerous cell proliferation. Erlotinib is a promising anticancer agent mainly utilized in the mitigation of non-small cell lung cancer cells (NSCLC) and pancreatic tumor. Apart from NSCLC and pancreatic tumor, erlotinib has also been employed in different malignancies, including metastatic colorectal cancer, malignant glioma, breast cancer, gastrointestinal cancers, etc. Despite erlotinib’s distinctive qualities as a targeted drug, its applications are still limited by poor solubility, variable oral bioavailability, a high daily dose requirement, large protein binding, and primitive or acquired therapeutic resistance. Nanotechnology is a favorable approach to increase therapeutic effectiveness of erlotinib. It is one of the newest scientific field directed toward the diagnosis and targeted treatment of cancer. This technology aids in the distinction between normal and malignant cells, which overlays the strategy for targeted delivery. This manuscript discussed the advances of erlotinib nanoformulations in the management of different cancers. Moreover, the manuscript also comprises various research outcomes of erlotinib nanoformulations with other therapeutic agents as combinational therapy. Erlotinib can be delivered to a precise target in the body utilizing different polymers, lipids, and metals.

Corneal diseases are a major cause of vision loss worldwide. Traditional methods like corneal transplants from donors are effective but face challenges like limited donor availability and the risk of graft rejection. Therefore, new treatment methods are essential. This review examines the growing field of bioprinting and biofabrication in corneal tissue engineering. We begin by discussing various bioprinting methods such as stereolithography, inkjet, and extrusion printing, highlighting their strengths and weaknesses for eye-related uses. We also explore how biological tissues are made suitable for bioprinting through a process called decellularization, which can be achieved using chemical, physical, or biological methods. The review then looks at natural materials, known as bioinks, used in bioprinting. We focus on materials like gelatin, collagen, fibrin, chitin, chitosan, silk fibroin, and alginate, examining their mechanical and biological properties. The importance of hydrogel scaffolds, particularly those based on collagen and other materials, is also discussed in the context of repairing corneal tissue. Another key area we cover is the use of stem cells in corneal regeneration. We pay special attention to limbal epithelial stem cells and mesenchymal stromal cells, highlighting their roles in this process. The review concludes with an overview of the latest advancements in corneal tissue bioprinting, from early techniques to advanced methods of delivering stem cells using bioengineered materials. In summary, this review presents the current state and future potential of bioprinting and biofabrication in creating functional corneal tissues, highlighting new developments and ongoing challenges with a view towards restoring vision.

The toxicity potential and inadequate bioavailability of antiretroviral therapy restrict their effectiveness in completely eradicating HIV-1 from viral reservoirs, as the drugs encounter difficulties in accessing these reservoirs. This study presents a combinatorial D-α-tocopheryl polyethylene glycol succinate (TPGS)-decorated nano-structured lipid carrier of Etravirine (ETR) and Darunavir Ethanolate (DRVE) that was formulated, optimized, and characterized to achieve synergistic effects against HIV-1 infection. The effectiveness of the combinatorial approach was evaluated by in silico studies, and their docking score and free binding energy showed that both drugs demonstrate synergistic effects against their respective enzymes. The cellular research of ED (ETR and DRVE) in TMZ-b1 cell lines also showed that the best ratio of ETR and DRVE (1:6.5 μg/mL) produced a combined effect. The formulation, termed ED-TPGS-NLCs, underwent optimization using central composite rotational design (CCRD) through a modified emulsification process, followed by characterization based on globule size, polydispersity index (PDI), percentage entrapment efficiency, percentage drug loading, and transmission electron microscopy (TEM) analysis. In vitro release studies demonstrated a notable improvement of drug release from the optimized lipid nanosystem, conforming to the Korsmeyer-Peppas kinetics model. Besides, the in-vitro studies, the intestinal permeation enhancement study, the intestinal depth analysis, and the pharmacokinetic assessment of the optimized formulation in Wistar rats were performed to improve permeation and increase plasma drug concentration. ED-TPGS-NLCs also stopped HIV-1 infection in TMZ-b1 cell lines by 50%, and the lowest concentration needed to do this was about 58 times lower than purified ED suspension. These studies ensure that ED-TPGS-NLCs were taken up due to the formation of chylomicrons and inhibit the p-gp efflux system by TPGS and solutol to inhibit the first-pass hepatic metabolism, which helps to improve the intestinal permeation and enhance plasma drug concentration, leading to enhanced oral bioavailability of ED. Hence, the improved bioavailability of ED in the nanoformulation also enhanced the anti-retroviral efficacy and improved the safety margins of ED-TPGS-NLCs. These findings can also reduce the side effects of high doses of antiretroviral drugs.

Over the last decade, nanoparticles have found great interest among scientists and researchers working in various fields within the realm of biomedicine including drug delivery, gene delivery, diagnostics, targeted therapy and biomarker mapping. While their physical and chemical properties are impressive, there is growing concern about the toxicological potential of nanoparticles and possible adverse health effects as enhanced exposure of biological systems to nanoparticles may result in toxic effects leading to serious contraindications. Toxicity associated with nanoparticles (nanotoxicity) may include the undesired response of several physiological mechanisms including the distressing of cells by external and internal interaction with nanoparticles. However, comprehensive knowledge of nanotoxicity mechanisms and mitigation strategies may be useful to overcome the hazardous situation while treating diseases with therapeutic nanoparticles. With the same objectives, this review discusses various mechanisms of nanotoxicity and provides an overview of the current state of knowledge on the impact of nanotoxicity on biological control systems and organs including liver, brain, kidneys and lungs. An attempt also been made to present various approaches of scientific research and strategies that could be useful to overcome the effect of nanotoxicity during the development of nanoparticle-based systems including coating, doping, grafting, ligation and addition of antioxidants.

In the present work, nanoemulsions were fabricated utilizing the high-energy emulsification method. The selection of the ratio of surfactant (tween 80)/co-surfactant (lauroglycol 90) mixtures (Smix) used for the preparation of nanoemulsion was done on the basis of the area occupied by Smix molecules at the interface. Amin at the interface gives the information about the molecules that adsorb at the oil–water interface pack together. The small value of Amin indicates that strong adsorption has taken place at the oil–water interface. Moreover, it indicates a close contact between oil and water too. Molecular orientations of surfactant molecules at this ratio are nearly perpendicular to the interface, providing a more close packing thereby producing a more stable nanoemulsion. A composition that contains different ratios of surfactant (tween 80)/co-surfactant (lauroglycol 90) mixtures (Smix) was prepared to achieve a small Amin value. Surface tension value was used to estimate the area per molecule and surface excess concentration. The value of Amin for Smix ratios 1:0, 1:1, 2:1, 3:1, 4:1, 5:1, 1:2, and 1:3 were found to be 0.83, 0.82, 0.70, 0.62, 0.54, 0.60, 0.86, and 0.87, respectively. Among these Smix ratios, ratio 4:1 was selected for preparing the nanoemulsion as it exhibited the low Amin required for optimum emulsification conditions. It can be inferred that the determination of Amin for Smix serves as an effective technique in the screening of Smix ratio for producing a stable nanoemulsion.