This study investigated the effects of a 10-week powerlifting-style bench press resistance training program, with (EBD) and without an elastic bench press device (RAW), on one-repetition maximum (1-RM), body mass (BM), muscle mass (MM), fat-free mass (FFM), and muscle thickness of the triceps brachii and pectoralis major. Twenty-two trained males (EBD: n = 10, age 25.1 ± 4.5 years, relative 1-RM 1.05 ± 0.31; RAW: n = 12, age 24.9 ± 3.9 years, relative 1-RM 1.07 ± 0.31) performed training three times weekly, with the EBD group training at 10% higher intensity than the RAW group. Analysis revealed significant time effects for 1-RM (EBD: +8.5 ± 2 5.3%, d = 0.34, p ≤ 0.001; RAW: +7.8 ± 28%, d = 0.28, p ≤ 0.001) and pectoralis major muscle thickness (EBD: +15.5 ± 23.9%, d = 0.65, p = 0.007; RAW: +17.2 ± 13.2%, d = 1.31, p = 0.001). Despite significant time effects, BM revealed no relevant post hoc changes (EBD: +1.0 ± 23.8%, d = 0.04, p = 0.406; RAW: 0.0 ± 19.5%, d = 0.00, p = 1.000). No significant interaction effects emerged for any outcome, and triceps thickness, MM, FFM, and fat mass did not show statistically significant changes. EBD and RAW training produced comparable strength and hypertrophic adaptations. Although the RAW group showed slightly greater gains in pectoralis major thickness, the difference was not statistically significant. This study highlights that while EBD provides a viable alternative to conventional resistance training, it does not confer superior gains.

Accurate strength assessment requires consideration of individual anthropometric and demographic differences. Traditional absolute and body mass-normalized measures often fail to capture inter-individual variability, thereby limiting the precision of strength testing and classification. This study aimed to investigate the influence of age, body mass, height, and anthropometric characteristics on strength capacity and to systematically integrate these variables into a classification framework. A total of 393 individuals (197 females, 196 males), aged 16-64 years and ranging from beginners to elite powerlifters, were recruited. One-repetition maximum (1-RM) strength was assessed in the bench press (BP), back squat (SQ), and deadlift (DL). Age, height, body mass, and selected anthropometric variables including arm and leg lengths, were recorded. Multiple regression analyses were used to quantify the influence of these variables on 1-RM performance. Based on significant predictors, individualized z-scores were computed to standardize 1-RM values relative to relevant anthropometric and demographic factors. The applicability of these z-scores to interval-based classification frameworks was evaluated. Age, body mass, and height were identified as significant determinants of maximal strength across all 3 exercises. Incorporation of these variables into z-score calculation enabled a more precise and individualized assessment of strength performance. Attempts to apply z-scores to interval-based classification frameworks revealed substantial within-category heterogeneity, indicating that such frameworks are unsuitable for accurate strength classification. This study establishes an anthropometry- and demography-adjusted framework for strength assessment in BP, SQ, and DL among healthy adults aged 16-64 years. Standardized z-scores provide a biologically meaningful alternative to conventional normalization methods. The proposed z-score framework provides a reproducible, data-driven tool for individualized strength assessment in the BP, SQ and DL, with direct applications in sport science research, performance monitoring, and strength-based rehabilitation for healthy adults aged 16-64 years.

Background Bulking strategies in resistance-trained individuals typically involve high meal frequency and long eating windows. Objectives The present study aimed to investigate whether time-restricted eating [TRE (16:8 protocol)] can affect nutrient intake, body composition, 1-repetition maximum (1RM) performance, and resting hormone levels during a bulking phase in resistance-trained individuals. Methods Twenty-three healthy individuals were randomly assigned to either a TRE or a control (CON) group. All participants completed intense resistance training 3 times per week for 12 wk and were instructed to consume 300 to 500 kcal above their individualized daily energy requirements. Body composition (measured by single-frequency bioelectrical impedance analysis) and 1RM performance were assessed every 4 wk. Hormone levels were measured at baseline and after intervention, and the Hooper questionnaire for monitoring well-being was completed daily. Results TRE consumed significantly fewer calories than prescribed [target intake: 37.50 ± 4.87; actual intake: 31.86 ± 7.52 kcal/kg body weight (BW), P = 0.001], with lower protein intake (1.60 ± 0.20; 1.44 ± 0.31 g/kg BW, P = 0.025) and lower carbohydrate intake (5.27 ± 1.19; 3.97 ± 1.29 g/kg BW, P < 0.001). Despite this, both groups showed similar increases in fat-free mass (TRE: +1.34 ± 0.78; CON: +1.38 ± 1.42 kg) and muscle mass (+1.07 ± 0.94; +1.13 ± 0.61 kg). The CON group showed significantly greater increases in BW (+2.19 ± 2.40; +3.90 ± 2.14 kg; P = 0.018) and fat mass (+2.00 ± 2.49; +4.36 ± 2.26 kg; P = 0.009). Similar increases in 1RM performance were observed for both deadlift (+26.36 ± 10.92; +26.04 ± 8.01 kg) and bench press (+12.95 ± 7.23; +11.04 ± 3.61 kg). There were no meaningful differences between the groups regarding hormone levels and questionnaire results. Conclusions The lower total energy intake in the TRE group was associated with smaller increases in fat mass, reflecting reduced adherence to the prescribed energy surplus within the restricted eating window. Nevertheless, the results indicate that sufficient macronutrients were consumed to support increases in muscle mass and strength comparable with those observed in the CON group.This study was registered at the German Clinical Trials Register as DRKS-ID: DRKS00038177.

Ammonia inhalation is used in strength sports to enhance performance; however, its effects remain unclear. This study investigated its impact on maximal bench press performance, salivary cortisol levels, and heart rate variability (HRV). Twenty resistance-trained males (26 ± 5 years, 1.80 ± 0.06 m, 90.1 ± 9.3 kg) completed a randomized, single-blind crossover trial involving ammonia inhalation or a placebo. Each session included a one-repetition maximum (1-RM) bench press test, with mean concentric velocity (MCV) and power output recorded via inertial measurement. Salivary cortisol samples were collected pre- and post-test, and HRV was measured. No significant differences were observed between the ammonia and placebo conditions for 1-RM, MCV, power output, or cortisol responses (p ≥ 0.181, ηp2 ≤ 0.02). However, HRV root mean square of successive differences (RMSSD) showed a significant time x condition interaction (p = 0.020, ηp2 = 0.31), indicating greater parasympathetic activity post-exercise in the ammonia condition. Ammonia inhalation did not enhance bench press performance but affected post-exercise autonomic responses. Further research is needed to explore individual variability and underlying mechanisms.

ABSTRACT:Gavanda, S, Held, S, Schrey, S, Oberwetter, K, Lazzaro, P-GM, Pergelt, M, and Geisler, S. Optimizing resistance training outcomes: comparing in-person supervision, online coaching, and self-guided approaches: a randomized controlled trial. J Strength Cond Res 39(11): 1129-1137, 2025-This randomized, parallel-group trial investigated the effects of supervised (SUP), app-guided (APP), and self-guided (PDF) 10-week, thrice-weekly full-body resistance training (RT) on strength, body composition, well-being, and supervision satisfaction (S-SRQ) in trained men and women ( n = 79, 48% women; 30.7 ± 7.8 years, 1.75 ± 0.1 m, 77.5 ± 17.5 kg). Adherence was highest in SUP (88.2%), followed by APP (81.2%) and PDF (52.2%). At p ≤ 0.05, body mass (+1.8 ± 1.9 kg, p = 0.006) and fat-free mass (+1.4 ± 0.9 kg, p ≤ 0.001) increased significantly in SUP. Muscle mass gains were observed in SUP (+1.4 ± 0.9 kg, p = 0.009) and PDF (+0.9 ± 1.3 kg, p = 0.047). All groups improved squat 1-repetition maximum (1RM) (SUP: +26.6 ± 6.5 kg, p ≤ 0.001; APP: +19.2 ± 11.0 kg, p ≤ 0.001; PDF: +19.4 ± 11.7 kg, p ≤ 0.001) and bench press 1RM (SUP: +9.1 ± 3.5 kg, p ≤ 0.001; APP: +8.2 ± 4.0 kg, p ≤ 0.001; PDF: +7.7 ± 5.8 kg, p ≤ 0.001). Supervised showed significantly greater squat gains than APP and PDF ( p ≤ 0.044). Well-being (WHO-5) improved in SUP (+15.7 ± 16.2 points, p ≤ 0.001) and PDF (+9.0 ± 20.4 points, p = 0.032). Satisfaction with supervision was significantly higher in SUP (96.7 ± 4.3%) than in APP (92.0 ± 7.1%, p = 0.005). In conclusion, supervised RT resulted in superior improvements in strength, body composition, well-being, and supervision satisfaction compared with app-guided or self-guided training. Although APP and PDF resulted in some positive effects, their magnitude was generally smaller. These findings underscore the value of in-person coaching in optimizing RT outcomes. However, app-based RT shows promise for maintaining adherence, offering a viable alternative when full supervision is not feasible.

Millions compete in Cheersport, yet athlete performance remains understudied. This cross-sectional study examined body composition, fitness, and performance to understand its physiological demands. Thirty national team members (coed and all girl) were recruited to participate in this study. Age, height, and training history were collected via a questionnaire. Body composition was measured using bioelectrical impedance analysis. Performance testing included the countermovement jump (CMJ), push-ups, plank, and the Yo-Yo intermittent recovery test. Maximum oxygen uptake ( V̇ O2max) was estimated based on the distance covered during the Yo-Yo test. Flyers were younger (23.8±2.3 years), smaller (159±7 cm), and lighter (53±2.6 kg) than bases (males: 26.4±4.9 years, 178±4 cm, 95±13 kg; females: 27.0±3.3 years, 167±5 cm, 66±11 kg). Male athletes had higher fat-free mass than female athletes (88.0±13.3 vs. 55.1±8.1 kg). All subgroups (bases, flyers, males, females) had low to very low fat mass (7.5–11.9 V̇ O2max (42.2±2.0 mL/kg/min). Women tended to have less training background in resistance training (2 years), while men tended to have no history of endurance training. This study adds to the understanding of Cheersport demands, highlighting anthropometric differences by position and sex. While athletes showed good jumping ability, V̇ O2max could be improved. Given the low strength and endurance training background of these elite athletes, findings suggest a need for sport-specific strength and conditioning programs to enhance performance and reduce injury risk.

Purpose: Competitive cheerleading (cheersport) is a physically demanding sport; however, there is a lack of information regarding its acute physiological responses during training or competition in these athletes. Thus, this study aimed to investigate these responses during both training sessions and simulated cheerleading competition routines (full-outs) among elite cheersport athletes. Methods: Six Coed and 10 All Girl elite cheerleaders were included in this study. Countermovement-jump (CMJ) height and blood lactate concentration were measured prepractice, after warm-up, after a full-out, and at the end of the training session. Heart rate (HR) was monitored throughout all the sessions. One-way analysis of variance was used to analyze changes over time. Results: Most of the training time (51%–68%) was spent between 50% and 69% maximum HR. Only 3% to 4% was spent above 90% HRmax. During full-outs, most of the time (67%–80%), HR was ≥80% maximum HR. The blood lactate concentration was significantly elevated post-full-out (6.4 [1.6] mmol/L) compared with pretraining and post-warm-up (P < .001). In addition, blood lactate concentration was higher after training (3.4 [2.2] mmol/L) compared with prepractice and post-warm-up (P ≤ .025). CMJ height did not change over time (P ≤ .268). Conclusion: Cheersport training leads to a low overall metabolic demand but is interspersed with short, high-intensity “intervals.” The highest intensities were achieved during full-outs, indicating the anaerobic nature of competition routines. Therefore, cheerleaders should train both the aerobic and the anaerobic systems to increase recovery capacity between drills and to maximize anaerobic power during competition.

Whether low-load resistance training (RT) without muscle failure, with or without blood flow restriction (BFR), is sufficient to increase strength and muscle growth of calf muscles in trained individuals is still unclear. This study aimed to compare the effects of low-intensity BFR RT vs. traditional low-intensity RT (noBFR) with moderate training volume on strength and circumference.

Athletes may benefit from isokinetic training (IK) to improve strength and jump performance. Previous studies comparing IK methods to isotonic resistance training (IT) have utilized high-repetition protocols and a Dynamometer, which are usually reserved for laboratory or rehabilitation settings. This study compared effects of IK and IT using ≤ 6 repetitions on strength and jump performance in 50 male, team-sport athletes (ages 18-35) during COVID-19 lockdown using the commercially-available TechnoGym BioCircuit Dynamometer. This 4-group randomized parallel study assessed the effects of an 8-week isokinetic at 80°/s (IK80; n = 16) and 25°/s (IK25; n = 12) or isotonic training program (IT; n = 15) compared to a control group (CG; n = 7) on anthropometric measurements, peak torque at 80°/s (PT80) and 25°/s (PT25), one-repetition maximum (1-RM) leg extension, and countermovement (CMJ) and squat jump height (SJ). Anthropomorphic data showed minimal differences between groups post-intervention. Strength increased in IT, and IK25 compared to CG, with no difference between intervention groups. SJ increased in all groups compared to the control group, with differences between groups. Counter movement jump (CMJ) improved only in IT and IK80 with no between-group difference. These results do support the hypothesis that low-repetition IK and IT can be used to effectively improve strength and jump performance in athletic populations. However, the efficacy of IK on CMJ depends on training velocity and repetition range, with a higher velocity training protocol (80°/s) being more effective for jump performance and lower speeds potentially more useful for improving maximal strength (25°/s).

IntroductionLittle is known about the demands of competitive cheerleading. Therefore, the objective of this study was to assess fatigue and recovery during preparation for world championships.MethodsFifteen participants from the German senior “All-Girl” and “Coed” national teams (nine males and six women) were recruited. Data were collected during the final preparation (T1 -T7) and competition days (C1 -C2). Heart rate variability (HRV) and resting heart rate (HR) were measured every morning. Data on training load, recovery, and stress (Short Scale for Recovery and Stress) were surveyed after training. Countermovement jump height (CMJ), sit-and-reach, and exercise-induced muscle damage (EMID) scores were taken in the afternoon.ResultsThere was a practically relevant decrease in CMJ (T2, T6). A trend for HR to increase (T5–C2) and HRV to decrease (T4, T6–C2) was evident. Through training, recovery decreased and recovered as C1 approached (mental performance: T2–T4 p = 0.004; T2–C1 p = 0.029; T3–T4 p = 0.029; emotional balance: T3–T4 p = 0.023; T3–C1 p = 0.014; general recovery status T1–T3 p = 0.008; T3–T4 p = 0.024; T3–C1 p = 0.041), whereas stress increased during the first days and returned to normal before C1 (emotional dysbalance: T2–T4 p = 0.014; T2–C1 p = 0.009; T3–T4 p = 0.023; T3–C1 p = 0.014). EMID scores increased for the upper and lower body between T3, T5–T7 (p ≤ 0.036) and T3, T6–T7 (p ≤ 0.047), respectively.DiscussionPre-competition training led to substantial fatigue, and most markers indicate that athletes do not compete fully recovered. This could possibly be avoided by optimizing the training load or implementing recovery strategies.

PURPOSE: Wearing a weight vest during warm-up or speed training, including linear sprinting and/or change of direction drills, is effective for increasing performance (e.g., sprint velocity, 10-50 m sprint times) in adult populations. However, weight vest training (WVT) studies with younger participants are lacking. Therefore, the purpose of this pilot study was to investigate the effectiveness of WVT in male adolescent soccer players. METHODS: A two-group matched pair parallel design based on initial 30 m sprint time was used to assess the effects of a 7-week, twice-weekly pre-season speed training program (linear sprinting and change of direction drills), completed either with (Vest) or without a weight vest (NoVest) on broad jump performance (BJ), reactive strength index (RSI), change of direction speed (T-Test), and 10- and 30-meter sprint time in U15 and U16 players (vest: n = 7; age = 14.6 ± 0.5 years; height = 173.5 ± 9.2 cm; weight = 58.0 ± 5.9 kg; body mass index = 19.0 ± 1.3 kg/m2; maturity offset = 1.0 ± 0.6 years; no vest: n = 5; age = 14.8 ± 0.6 years; height = 172.7 ± 8.4 cm; weight = 66.4 ± 19.1 kg; body mass index = 21.4 ± 4.9 kg/m2; maturity offset = 0.4 ± 1.7 years). As recommended in previous work, during speed training, a weight vest of 20% body weight was worn in the VEST group. For between-group differences the Mann-Whitney-U Test was used for unpaired samples; for time effects, the Wilcoxon Signed-Ranks Test was used. Significance was defined as p ≤ 0.05. RESULTS: There were no significant differences between groups at any time point. However, T-Test, 10 m, and 30 m sprint times only improved in the Vest group, whereas there were no changes in the NoVest group. CONCLUSIONS: The findings of this study indicate that WVT is more effective than NoVest training for improving speed in adolescents, with effect sizes being comparable to previous studies with adults. However, more studies with larger populations are required. - Mean values and results of all parameters measured Group Pre p (group) Post p (group) Δ Δ% p (time) ES BJ [cm] Vest (n = 7) 199 (11) 0.849 205 (9) 1.000 5.71 2.87 0.176 0.59 NoVest (n = 5) 196 (26) 201 (17) 4.60 2.34 0.465 0.22 RSI Vest (n = 7) 1.16 (0.28) 0.705 1.28 (0.35) 0.571 0.12 10.74 0.128 0.40 NoVest (n = 5) 1.44 (1.09) 1.61 (1.14) 0.17 11.81 0.144 0.15 T-Test [s] Vest (n = 7) 11.93 (0.63) 0.636 10.44 (0.54) 0.256 -1.48 -12.42 0.018* -2.52 NoVest (n = 4) 12.11 (0.68) 10.54 (0.20) -1.57 -12.93 0.068 -3.57 10 m [s] Vest (n = 7) 1.74 (0.14) 0.507 1.63 (0.12) 0.296 -0.11 -6.07 0.046* -0.80 NoVest (n = 4) 1.76 (0.06) 1.72 (0.10) -0.04 -2.27 0.715 -0.51 30 m [s] Vest (n = 7) 4.45 (0.35) 0.505 4.30 (0.34) 0.257 -0.14 -3.21 0.018* -0.41 NoVest (n = 4) 4.45 (0.15) 4.47 (0.12) 0.02 0.45 0.715 0.15

Abstract Background Resistance training (RT) is effective in counteracting the age- and menopause-related loss of muscle mass (MM) and strength in middle-aged women (40–60 years). Research on RT with free weights is limited in pre- and post-menopausal women. Based on this, a 20-week training intervention was conducted with this population to investigate the effects of systematic RT with free weights on strength capacity and body composition. Method Forty-one healthy women (52.0 ± 3.6 years) participated in this study. After 10-week control phase (no RT, T0-T1) followed by a 10-week intervention phase (T1-T2) with RT twice a week and 6–8 sets of each muscle per week. Subjects were randomly assigned to a low-intensity (50% 1-RM) or moderate-intensity (75% 1-RM) RT group and divided into pre-menopausal and post-menopausal according to their hormone profile. Fat-free mass (FFM), MM, fat mass (FM), muscle thickness (Vastus lateralis (VL), Rectus femoris (RF), Triceps brachii (TB)), grip strength, 1-RM squat and bench press were assessed before and after each phase. Statistical analysis was performed using a linear mixed model to account for fixed (time and group) and random (individual) effects. Results A total of 31 women successfully completed the study. No injuries occurred during the intervention. Significant increases in 1-RM squat and bench press were observed in all groups. No interaction effect was observed for the strength parameters. In pre-menopausal women, FFM, MM and RF muscle thickness increased significantly, while VL showed a trend. These effects were not present in post-menopausal women regardless of RT intensity. Conclusion RT with free weight is safe and effective for middle-aged women to increase 1-RM. Hypertrophy effects were found exclusively in pre-menopausal women. To achieve hypertrophy and/or body composition changes in post-menopausal women, larger training volumes (> 6–8 sets/muscle per week) are likely required.

High-intensity functional training (HIFT) integrates different modes of exercise into training sessions performed at a relatively high intensity. Although HIFT is becoming more popular in youth strength and conditioning programs, research comparing the effects of HIFT with traditional forms of training, such as strength training (ST) or endurance training (ET) in younger populations are limited. Therefore, the aim of this study was to compare the effects of HIFT with those of ST and ET on strength and endurance performance in adolescents. Fifty-two untrained adolescents (male = 26; female = 26; 17.3 +/- 1.0 years) were randomly assigned to a HIFT, ST, ET, or control group. The intervention groups trained twice a week for 6 weeks with a training duration of 60-75 minutes per session. Performance was assessed before and after the intervention with the countermovement jump (CMJ), 20-m sprint (20 m), 3-repetition maximum back squat (3RM), and Yo-Yo test. The HIFT group made significant improvements in all performance tests (CMJ, +28.5 +/- 27.6%; p > 0.001; 20-m time, -3.9 +/- 5.0%; p = 0.002; 3RM, +34.3 +/- 23.3%; p > 0.001; Yo-Yo, +14.5 +/- 15.2%; p = 0.003), whereas the ST group improved in CMJ (+38.3 +/- 27.7%; p > 0.001), 3RM (+22.2 +/- 11.2%; p > 0.001), and Yo-Yo (+12.2 +/- 21.4%; p = 0.013) and the ET group improved in CMJ (+23.4 +/- 29.9%; p = 0.001), 20-m time (-5.2 +/- 4.6%; p > 0.001), and Yo-Yo (+30.7 +/- 37.3%; p > 0.001). No significant differences between the groups were evident when the results were compared for sex. These results indicate that HIFT is an effective training method for eliciting multifaceted improvements in strength, power, and endurance measures as compared with ET or ST alone in untrained adolescents.

CrossFit (R) (CF) uses constantly varying functional movements in so-called "Workouts of the Day" (WOD), which are often carried out under time pressure. CF is therefore often criticized as a trigger of high risk of injury. There are studies on injury frequencies in CF from the USA, the Netherlands and Brazil. No comparable studies have yet been carried out from Germany. Therefore, the aim of the present study was to analyse retrospective injuries and overload syndromes in the CF with the help of a survey. An online questionnaire with 32 questions was used to collect demographic characteristics as well as information on the training completed, the frequency of injuries, body region and the cause of injury in the last 12months. Only athletes who trained in a certified CF Box were included in the evaluation (n = 577, 32.5 +/- 8.2 years; 16-61 years). 53 % of respondents were female and 47 % were male. Most athletes (90 %) were classified as advanced (>6months CF training experience) and 10 % as beginners (<= 6 months CF training experience). Advanced athletes trained significantly more often than beginners (3.7 +/- 1.3 vs. 2.8 +/- 1.3 training units / week; p < 0.001). Half of the respondents suffered at least one injury in the previous 12months, 12 % experienced two injuries and 3 % experienced more than three injuries. No significant differences in the frequency of injuries between men and women were found (p = 0.78), but advanced athletes suffered significantly more injuries than beginners (0.7 +/- 0.8 vs. 0.4 +/- 0.6, p = 0.002). Most injuries occurred during the WOD (48 %), followed by barbell training (21 %). The most frequently affected areas were the shoulder (23 %), the lower back (18 %) and the knee ( 10 %). Based on the available results, it is assumed that a higher frequency of training is a possible factor that triggers injuries. Therefore, the relationship between stress and regeneration should be taken into account in individual practice. In addition, proper exercise execution should also be taken into account when training under time pressure. Additionally, preventive exercises for the frequently affected body regions (shoulder, back, knee) should be integrated into the training process in order to reduce the risk of injury.

The aim of this study was to investigate the effects of an 8‑week powerlifting-type bench press (BP) resistance training (RT) program, either without (RAW) or with using a supportive elastic bench press device (EBD) on one-repetition maximum (1-RM), body weight (BW), mid-upper arm and chest circumference, as well as visual analogue pain scale (VAS) of the shoulder, elbow, and wrist. For this purpose, a matched pair parallel design based on initial 1‑RM was used (BPD n = 16, age 24.4 ± 4 years, RT experience 3.75 ± 1.83 years; RAW n = 16, age 25 ± 2 years, RT experience 5.66 ± 3.00 years). Following two weeks of familiarization with the protocol , BP RT was carried out twice weekly. The EBD group completed more than half of their BP sets with elastic assistance and 10% higher training intensity than the RAW group. There was a significant time × group interaction in BW ( p = 0.008). Post hoc analysis showed a significant loss of 0.92 kg in the EBD group ( p = 0.049; effect size [ES] = −0.08; 95%CI [−1.80, 0.04]). A significant time effect for 1‑RM was observed ( p < 0.001). In both groups there was a significant change in 1‑RM of 5.00 kg ( p < 0.001; ES = 0.35; 95%CI [2.98, 7.02]). There was no significant change in any circumference or VAS measure. In conclusion, using an EBD leads to 1‑RM gains similar to conventional RAW BP training. However, more studies are required with highly trained individuals, in particular female athletes. Practitioners may implement EBD training for reasons of variation.

The breakdown of skeletal muscles increases with age and is further accelerated in today's society due to lower physical activity. The skeletal muscles are primarily responsible for the transmission of force and thus for our everyday movement. With the reduction of muscle mass, the execution of everyday movement is continuously hampered and the quality of life can be significantly reduced. However, strength or hypertrophy training can counteract muscle atrophy by slowing down degradation processes and rebuilding skeletal muscles. Nonetheless, training recommendations for hypertrophy training vary considerably. The primary aim of this article, therefore, is to summarize the current state of research and make practical recommendations.The most decisive aspect of hypertrophy training seems to be the setting of regular progressive and exhausting stress stimuli that activate at least one mechanism of action that is responsible for hypertrophic effects. In particular, the variation of the mechano-biological descriptors (training resistance, number of repetitions and sets, rests, etc.) could help to create long-term effective stimuli. There is almost no limit to the number of possible combinations, but these have to be adapted to the level of performance and the resilience of the training person as well as the feasibility in everyday life. As in the motto "many roads lead to Rome," hypertrophy training does not just entail one specific solution for planning and implementation. It is more essential to perform iterative stress stimuli in different variations in order to generate a hypertrophy effect and consequently counteract the breakdown of the skeletal muscles.

ZusammenfassungDer Abbau der Skelettmuskulatur steigt mit zunehmendem Alter und wird in der heutigen Gesellschaft aufgrund geringerer körperlicher Aktivität zusätzlich beschleunigt. Die Skelettmuskulatur ist vor allem für die Übertragung von Kräften und somit für unsere alltäglichen Bewegungen verantwortlich. Mit der Reduzierung der Muskelmasse wird die Durchführung von Alltagsbewegungen kontinuierlich erschwert, und die Lebensqualität kann dadurch deutlich sinken. Mit Kraft- bzw. Hypertrophietraining kann jedoch einer Muskelatrophie entgegengewirkt werden, indem Abbauprozesse verlangsamt werden und die Skelettmuskulatur wieder aufgebaut wird. Trainingsempfehlungen für ein Hypertrophietraining variieren jedoch erheblich. Dieser Artikel soll vor allem den aktuellen Forschungstand zusammenfassen und praxisrelevante Empfehlungen aussprechen.Der entscheidendste Aspekt beim Hypertrophietraining scheint lediglich das Setzen von regelmäßigen progressiven und erschöpfenden Belastungsreizen zu sein, die mindestens einen Wirkungsmechanismus aktivieren, der für hypertrophe Effekte verantwortlich ist. Vor allem die Variation der mechano-biologischen Deskriptoren (Trainingswiderstand, Anzahl Wiederholungen und Sätze, Pause etc.) könnte helfen, langfristig effektive Reize zu gestalten. Dabei kann nahezu auf unbegrenzte Kombinationsmöglichkeiten zurückgegriffen werden, welche jedoch dem Leistungsniveau und der Belastbarkeit der trainierenden Person sowie der Umsetzbarkeit im Alltag angepasst werden müssen. Nach dem Motto „viele Wege führen nach Rom“ gibt es dabei nicht nur eine konkrete Lösung bei der Planung und Durchführung eines Hypertrophietrainings. Es ist eher von essenzieller Bedeutung, dass kontinuierliche Belastungsreize in unterschiedlichen Variationen durchgeführt werden, um einen Hypertrophieeffekt zu erzeugen und folglich dem Abbau der Skelettmuskulatur entgegenzuwirken.

ZusammenfassungCrossFit® (CF) bedient sich ständig variierender funktioneller Bewegungen in sogenannten „Workouts of the Day“ (WOD), die oft unter Zeitdruck ausgeführt werden. CF wird daher oft kritisiert, da es möglicherweise ein hohes Verletzungsrisiko birgt. Es existieren Studien zu Verletzungshäufigkeiten beim CF aus den USA, den Niederlanden und Brasilien. Vergleichbare Untersuchungen liegen aus Deutschland bislang nicht vor. Daher war das Ziel der vorliegenden Studie mit Hilfe einer Befragung retrospektiv Verletzungen und Überlastungssyndrome im CF zu analysieren.Anhand eines Online-Fragebogens mit 32 Fragen wurden demografische Merkmale sowie Informationen zum absolvierten Training, der Verletzungshäufigkeit, Körperregion und Verletzungsursache der letzten 12 Monate erfasst. Nur Athletinnen und Athleten, die in einer zertifizierten CF Box trainierten, wurden bei der Auswertung berücksichtigt (n = 577, 32,5 ± 8,2 Jahre; Altersspanne 16-61 Jahre). 53 % der Befragten waren weiblich und 47 % waren männlich. Die meisten Athletinnen und Athleten (90 %) wurden als Fortgeschrittene eingestuft (> 6 Monate CF Trainingserfahrung) und 10 % als Anfänger (≤ 6 Monate CF Trainingserfahrung). Fortgeschrittene trainierten signifikant häufiger als Anfänger (3,7 ± 1,3 vs. 2,8 ± 1,3 Trainingseinheiten / Woche; p < 0,001). Die Hälfte der Befragten erlitt in den letzten 12 Monaten mindestens eine Verletzung, bei 12 % traten zwei und bei 3 % mehr als drei Verletzungen in diesem Zeitraum auf. Es wurden keine signifikanten Unterschiede in der Verletzungshäufigkeit zwischen Männern und Frauen gefunden (p = 0,78), jedoch erlitten Fortgeschrittene signifikant mehr Verletzungen als Anfänger (0,7 ± 0,8 vs. 0,4 ± 0,6, p = 0,002). Die meisten Verletzungen traten während des WOD auf (48 %), gefolgt von Langhanteltraining (21 %). Die am häufigsten betroffenen Stellen waren die Schulter (23 %), der untere Rücken (18 %) und das Knie (10 %).Anhand der vorliegenden Ergebnisse wird vermutet, dass eine höhere Trainingshäufigkeit ein möglicher Faktor darstellt, welcher Verletzungen begünstigt. Daher sollte das Verhältnis der Belastung und der Regeneration in der Praxis individualisiert Berücksichtigung finden. Außerdem sollten auf eine korrekte Übungsausführung auch unter Zeitdruck geachtet und präventive Übungen für die häufig betroffenen Körperregionen (Schulter, Rücken, Knie) in den Trainingsprozess integriert werden, um das Verletzungsrisiko zu reduzieren.

Most research concerning the effects of music on physical performance was conducted using endurance parameters. This study investigated the effects of relaxing (RLX) vs. self-selected stimulating music (SM) vs. no music (NM) on jump height (JH), jump power (PWR), and average rest period between jumps (RP) in 13 athletes (age: 25.5 ± 2.6 years). After a warm-up and listening to music (1 min) or NM, participants completed five squat jumps on a force plate. Psychological ratings of mood were assessed using a questionnaire before warm-up and after jumping. A one-way ANOVA was conducted to compare effects of music on JH, PWR, and RP. A Friedman test with Wilcoxon signed-rank test was used to detect changes in mood. There were no significant effects of music on JH (p = 0.162) and PWR (p = 0.162). A trend towards longer RP in RLX when compared to SM was detected (+2.72 s, +22%, p = 0.059, d = 0.35). Participants felt more "relaxed" (+3 ranks) and more "powerful" after listening to SM (+2 ranks). Following NM and RLX, athletes felt more "energetic" (each +3 ranks) but less energetic (-3 ranks) after SM. In conclusion, this study did not find any performance-enhancing effects of self-selected SM on jump performance. The influences of music on psychological ratings were inconclusive. For this reason, no evidence-based guidelines for the practical application of music in elite jumping athletes can be made, and more studies are warranted.