Understanding how terrestrial plant functional strategies (competitive, stress-tolerant, ruderal; CSR) respond to environmental conditions is crucial for predicting ecosystem dynamics under global climate change, yet remains unexplored at the global community level. Leveraging a machine learning approach, and utilizing multi-source satellite remote-sensing and field-collected sPlotOpen measurements data, we generated the first global community-level map of CSR functional strategy variations. Results show that S-selected strategies are globally dominant (C:S:R = 23.66:62.40:13.94%), with substantial spatial variations across biomes. This variability is strongly influenced by climatic variables (e.g. mean annual precipitation, diurnal temperature range) and soil properties (e.g. cation exchange capacity, total nitrogen). Future projections show that climate change favours S- (+0.33%) and R- (+0.31%) at the expense of C-selected strategy (-0.64%), alongside marked biome-specific shifts. Despite potential underestimation of localized climate uncertainties, these findings provide critical insights into global plant community dynamics under challenging abiotic conditions.

This study evaluated the reliability of functional data imputed in the classification of ecological strategies according to the CSR model (competitive, stress-tolerant, ruderal) in tree species of a riparian Atlantic Forest in Brazil. Empirical data collected in situ from 68 species were compared with data imputed using the Bayesian Hierarchical Probabilistic Matrix Factorization (BHPMF) technique, considering key functional attributes such as leaf area and specific leaf area. The results showed significant divergences between the classifications based on measured and imputed data, especially for the traits directly involved in the formulation of the CSR model. While imputation overestimated selection for stress tolerance, field data indicated a greater diversity of strategies, with a greater presence of competitive species. The discrepancies point to limitations in the exclusive use of imputed data in local assessments of functional diversity, highlighting the need to integrate empirical collections and improvements in imputation methods for applications in environmental management and restoration.

Wetlands are highly productive ecosystems in which vegetation plays a crucial role in primary productivity and biodiversity. Between July 2016 and October 2017, plant species were sampled in plots within the Gandoman wetland, Chaharmahal and Bakhtiari Province, Iran. The geographical distribution and life forms of species were recorded using R aunkiaer’s system, and leaf traits—including leaf area (LA), leaf fresh weight (LFW), and leaf dry weight (LDW)—were measured. The CSR (Competitor, Stress-tolerator, Ruderal) ecological strategies of 39 species were assessed using the StrateFy method. Floristic analysis indicated that Iran–Turanian (36.8

Due to anthropogenic pressure some species have declined whereas others have increased within their native ranges. Simultaneously, many species introduced by humans have established self-sustaining populations elsewhere (i.e. have become naturalized aliens). Previous studies have shown that particularly plant species that are common within their native range have become naturalized elsewhere. However, how changes in native distributions correlate with naturalization elsewhere is unknown. We compare data on grid-cell occupancy of native vascular plant species over time for 10 European regions (countries or parts thereof). For nine regions, both early occupancy and occupancy change correlate positively with global naturalization success (quantified as naturalization in any administrative region and as the number of such regions). In other words, many plant species spreading globally as naturalized aliens are also expanding within their native regions. This implies that integrating data on native occupancy dynamics in invasion risk assessments might help prevent new invasions.

Background and aims Elevation gradients provide 'natural experiments' for investigating plant climate change responses, advantageous for the study of protected species and life forms for which transplantation experiments are illegal or unfeasible, such as chasmophytes with perennial rhizomes pervading rock fissures. Elevational climatic differences impact mountain plant reproductive traits (pollen and seed quality, sexual vs. vegetative investment) and pollinator community composition; we investigated the reproductive ecology of a model chasmophyte, Campanula raineri Perp. (Campanulaceae), throughout its current elevational/climatic range to understand where sub-optimal conditions jeopardise survival. We hypothesised that: 1) reproductive fitness measures are positively correlated with elevation, indicative of the relationship between fitness and climate; 2) C. raineri, like other campanulas, is pollinated mainly by Hymenoptera; 3) potential pollinators shift with elevation. Methods We measured pollen and seed quality, seed production, the relative investment in sexual vs. vegetative structures and vegetative (Grime's CSR) strategies at different elevations. Potential pollinators were assessed by combining molecular and morphological identification. Key results Whereas CSR strategies were not linked to elevation, pollen and seed quality were positively correlated, as was seed production per fruit (Hypothesis 1 is supported). The main pollinators of C. raineri were Apidae, Andrenidae, Halictidae (Hymenoptera) and Syrphidae (Diptera), probably complemented by a range of occasional pollinators and visitors (Hypothesis 2 partially supported). Potential pollinator communities showed a taxonomic shift towards Diptera with elevation (particularly Anthomyiidae and Muscidae) and away from Hymenoptera (Hypothesis 3 was supported). Conclusions Pollinator availability is maintained at all elevations by taxon replacement. However, reduced pollen quality and seed production at lower elevations suggest an impact of climate change on reproduction (especially <1200 m a.s.l., where seed germination was limited). Aside from guiding targeted conservation actions for C. raineri, our results highlight problems that may be common to mountain chasmophytes worldwide.

To understand how plants adapt to environmental conditions within the constraints of trait trade-offs, Grime proposed the competitor, stress-tolerator and ruderal (CSR) ecological strategy theory. This framework categorizes species based on their responses to two key environmental factors: disturbance and stress. Despite its widespread use in ecological research, CSR theory has not yet been rigorously validated against species-specific environmental preferences, particularly for species beyond Great Britain. Additionally, the typical characteristics of these strategies, particularly in relation to root and flower traits, remain poorly understood. We analysed a dataset of 7037 vascular plant species to investigate the relationships between CSR strategies (quantified using the 'StrateFy' tool) and environmental preferences, as well as their associations with 31 plant traits, encompassing above-ground vegetative, below-ground and reproductive traits, using canonical correspondence analyses. Furthermore, we explored the potential cascading links among environmental preferences, CSR strategies and functional traits using correlation analyses. Our results revealed that CSR strategies, as reflected in CSR scores, are strongly correlated with species' environmental preferences for both stress and disturbance, and support Grime's hypothesis across a broad range of species and environmental conditions. Moreover, CSR strategies exhibit robust correlations with plant traits from roots to shoots. Specifically, C-selected species, which thrive in stable, nutrient-rich environments, are characterized by large seeds and bud banks; S-selected species often grow in light-rich environments and tolerate grazing, possess thicker leaves and often exhibit self-compatibility. In contrast, R-selected species, which dominate in highly disturbed, nutrient-rich habitats, form dense seed banks to maximize regeneration potential. Synthesis. Our findings provide strong empirical validation of the CSR theory using an extensive species dataset and expand the number and types of traits that are significantly associated with the CSR axes. This study highlights the broad applicability of the CSR theory for understanding plant adaptation and ecological functioning, making it a valuable tool for research in community assembly, functional trait diversity and evolutionary ecology, particularly in the context of climate change and increasing human-induced disturbances. 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Life is defined by self-governing networks of molecules that change conformation cyclically, converting thermodynamic motion into directional work and structure. A spectrum of scale, from nanoscopic to macroscopic, involves a shift from intracellular thermodynamically driven processes (thermal agitation ultimately rooted in quantum phenomena) to intercellular bulk flows described by classical physics; from short-distance transport involving diffusion and cytoskeletal transport to long-distance pressure fluxes in hydraulic networks. A review of internal transport systems in macroscopic eukaryotes suggests that a key evolutionary step favoring large size and multicellularity involved exploiting molecular-scale stochasticity to generate organized bulk flows (e.g., motor proteins collectively generating mechanical pressures in metazoan tissues such as cardiac muscle; within tracheophytes, active and passive phloem loading/unloading inducing pressure gradients, and active regulation enabling passive xylem function and hydraulic reliability; sieve-like conduction in heterokonts; and peristaltic shuttle streaming in myxogastrian plasmodia). Macroscopic physiologies are underpinned by Brownian molecular thermodynamics and thus quantum mechanics; the apparently disparate physiologies of large organisms share a fundamental operating principle at small scales. However, the specific translocation mechanisms that extend this functioning to larger scales are embroiled in bauplans, representing phylogenetic constraints to body size.

The waters around Nosy Be in northwest Madagascar are well-known for the occurrence of large planktivores, such as whale sharks (Rhincodon typus) and Omura’s whales (Balaenoptera omurai). Between 2016 and 2022, sighting data on mobulid rays were opportunistically collected during tourism activities. Additional sources, including citizen science submissions, tourism operator reports, and social media records, were used to compile sightings of three mobulid ray species. A total of 255 encounters were documented, with Mobula mobular (n = 165) being the most common, followed by M. birostris (n = 60) and M. kuhlii (n = 30). Notably, the absence of confirmed M. alfredi records since 2015 suggests a potential local decline. This study highlights Nosy Be as a habitat for mobulid rays and emphasises the necessity for further species monitoring, ongoing identification of potential threats, and management initiatives aiming at reducing mortality from gillnet fishing.

Understanding migratory connectivity is important for the conservation of highly mobile marine species facing escalating threats. Establishing baseline information on migratory connectivity is important to identify species and regions requiring transboundary cooperation for their conservation. Despite efforts to track migratory sharks and rays, information on transboundary movements is limited and often inaccessible to managers and policymakers. Here, we synthesised multimethod movement data for Australian shark and ray species listed under the Convention on Migratory Species (CMS), investigating which species require international engagement to support their population recovery. Based on data from a systematic literature review, we built connectivity networks from telemetry and mark-recapture studies that provide a first transboundary connectivity baseline for Australian sharks and rays. Of the 29 CMS-listed shark and ray species reviewed, we identified 5 species linking the Australian Exclusive Economic Zone to other national jurisdictions via multispecies migratory connections through the Tasman Sea to New Zealand, through the Tasman and Coral Sea to New Caledonia, and north across the Timor Sea and Torres Strait. White sharks ( Carcharhinus carcharias ) and whale sharks ( Rhincodon typus ) were the most data rich, while 18 (62%) of species had no movement information. Of note, nearly two-thirds of Endangered or Critically Endangered migratory shark and rays had only one or no published studies. We also show the applicability of this framework to support (or not) listing of migratory species under CMS. We demonstrate that migratory connectivity baselines can support international reporting, direct international collaboration, and focus research efforts on critical knowledge gaps. ### Competing Interest Statement The authors have declared no competing interest.

Plant functional traits determine how individual plants cope with varying environmental conditions, and extensive literature supports their role in influencing ecosystem properties. The study of plant functional traits could help the prediction of species responses to disturbances and environmental change, thus providing invaluable knowledge to refine conservation strategies of species and vegetation. However, applications of functional ecology for vegetation management are still underrepresented.The articles in this Special Issue of FLORA offer cutting-edge insights on the variation of plant traits and ecological strategies in response to environmental drivers, such as anthropogenic disturbance, climate and land use change. The results demonstrate how trait-based approaches can be used for the prediction of climate and land use change impacts on vulnerable sets of species or on biogeochemical cycles, reinforcing the concept that functional plant ecology can help identify the most effective procedures for vegetation management, such as the choice of mowing intensity in grasslands or planning vegetation recovery after wildfires.Our knowledge of plant trait coordination at the community level is still undefined, especially concerning the integration of above- and belowground traits. This represents a missed opportunity for vegetation management, especially considering that a complete understanding of the dynamics of the entire ecosystem is crucial for complete understanding of ecosystem properties. Since plant functional traits can represent a straightforward tool for monitoring changes in ecosystem structure and functions, their use could support vegetation monitoring as required by different programs of nature conservation. It would be useful to embrace a perspective that integrates plant traits with systematic conservation planning, ensuring effective and sustainable conservation efforts.

Human factors and plant characteristics are important drivers of plant invasions, which threaten ecosystem integrity, biodiversity and human well-being. However, while previous studies often examined a limited number of factors or focused on a specific invasion stage (e.g., naturalization) for specific regions, a multi-factor and multi-stage analysis at the global scale is lacking. Here, we employ a multi-level framework to investigate the interplay between plant characteristics (genome size, Grime’s adaptive CSR-strategies and native range size) and economic use and how these factors collectively affect plant naturalization and invasion success worldwide. While our findings derived from structural equation models highlight the substantial contribution of human assistance in both the naturalization and spread of invasive plants, we also uncovered the pivotal role of species’ adaptive strategies among the factors studied, and the significantly varying influence of these factors across invasion stages. We further revealed that the effects of genome size on plant invasions were partially mediated by species adaptive strategies and native range size. Our study provides insights into the complex and dynamic process of plant invasions and identifies its key drivers worldwide.

Elton's biotic resistance hypothesis posits that species-rich communities are more resistant to invasion. However, it remains unknown how species, phylogenetic and functional richness, along with environmental and human-impact factors, collectively affect plant invasion as alien species progress along the introduction-naturalization-invasion continuum. Using data from 12,056 local plant communities of the Czech Republic, this study reveals varying effects of these factors on the presence and richness of alien species at different invasion stages, highlighting the complexity of the invasion process. Specifically, we demonstrate that although species richness and functional richness of resident communities had mostly negative effects on alien species presence and richness, the strength and sometimes also direction of these effects varied along the continuum. Our study not only underscores that evidence for or against Elton's biotic resistance hypothesis may be stage-dependent but also suggests that other invasion hypotheses should be carefully revisited given their potential stage-dependent nature. According to Elton's biotic resistance hypothesis, species-rich communities are more resistant to plant invasion. Guo et al. examine a dataset of over 12,000 vegetation plots and report that the influence of resident community richness and relatedness on invasion resistance varies in direction and magnitude along the introduction-naturalization-invasion continuum.

The expansion of the world 's merchant fleet poses a great threat to the ocean 's biodiversity. Collisions between ships and marine megafauna can have population-level consequences for vulnerable species. The Endangered whale shark ( Rhincodon typus ) shares a circumglobal distribution with this expanding fleet and tracking of movement pathways has shown that large vessel collisions pose a major threat to the species. However, it is not yet known whether they are also at risk within aggregation sites, where up to 400 individuals can gather to feed on seasonal bursts of planktonic productivity. These "constellation " sites are of significant ecological, socioeconomic and cultural value. Here, through expert elicitation, we gathered information from most known constellation sites for this species across the world ( >50 constellations and >13,000 individual whale sharks). We defined the spatial boundaries of these sites and their overlap with shipping traffic. Sites were then ranked based on relative levels of potential collision danger posed to whale sharks in the area. Our results showed that researchers and resource managers may underestimate the threat posed by large ship collisions due to a lack of direct evidence, such as injuries or witness accounts, which are available for other, sub-lethal threat categories. We found that constellations in the Arabian Sea and adjacent waters, the Gulf of Mexico, the Gulf of California, and Southeast and East Asia, had the greatest level of collision threat. We also identified 39 sites where peaks in shipping activity coincided with peak seasonal occurrences of whale sharks, sometimes across several months. Simulated collision mitigation options estimated potentially minimal impact to industry, as most whale shark core habitat areas were small. Given the threat posed by vessel collisions, a coordinated, multi-national approach to mitigation is needed within priority whale shark habitats to ensure collision protection for the species.

Plant community assembly is the outcome of long-term evolutionary events (evident as taxonomic diversity; TD) and immediate adaptive fitness (functional diversity; FD); a balance expected to shift in favour of FD in ‘harsh’ habitats under intense selection pressures. We compared TD and FD responses along climatic and edaphic gradients for communities of two species (Dianthus pseudocrinitus and D. polylepis) endemic to the montane steppes of the Khorassan-Kopet Dagh floristic province, NE Iran. 75 plots at 15 sites were used to relate TD and FD to environmental gradients. In general, greater TD was associated with variation in soil factors (potassium, lime, organic matter contents), whereas FD was constrained by aridity (drought adaptation). Crucially, even plant communities hosting different subspecies of D. polylepis responded differently to aridity: D. polylepis subsp. binaludensis communities included a variety of broadly stress-tolerant taxa with no clear environmental response, but TD of D. polylepis subsp. polylepis communities was directly related to precipitation, with consistently low FD reflecting a few highly specialized stress-tolerators. Integrating taxonomic and functional diversity metrics is essential to understand the communities hosting even extremely closely related taxa, which respond idiosyncratically to climate and soil gradients.

Intraspecific trait variation, essential to Darwin's mechanism of natural selection, has been widely examined for single characters. However, intraspecific variation of adaptive strategies which represent trade‐offs among multiple functional traits has received less attention, particularly for species that are globally distributed or invasive. Grime's competitor, stress tolerator and ruderal (CSR) scheme, well validated in the context of alien species invasions, provides both the theory and quantitative methodology to investigate adaptive strategies. Here, we quantified the intraspecific CSR strategy scores of a worldwide collection of 89 Phragmites australis genotypes which were cultivated in a common garden. We assessed the relationships between intraspecific variation in CSR strategy scores, genome size and climate of origin and tested whether the invasive and native lineages differ in CSR strategies. Substantial variation in intraspecific adaptive strategy, characterized mainly in C‐ and S‐selection, was observed. As expected, C‐, S‐ and R‐scores showed clear latitudinal clines and were strongly related to either genome size or climate of origin. Furthermore, invasive lineages were more stress adapted than native lineages. We conclude that the adaptive strategy of this perennial wetland grass varies globally, and its genotypes are surprisingly more stress tolerant in the invaded range where it was first detected ~150 years ago. Read the free Plain Language Summary for this article on the Journal blog.

Climate change is shifting animal distributions. However, the extent to which future global habitats of threatened marine megafauna will overlap existing human threats remains unresolved. Here we use global climate models and habitat suitability estimated from long-term satellite-tracking data of the world's largest fish, the whale shark, to show that redistributions of present-day habitats are projected to increase the species' co-occurrence with global shipping. Our model projects core habitat area losses of >50% within some national waters by 2100, with geographic shifts of over 1,000 km (similar to 12 km yr(-1)). Greater habitat suitability is predicted in current range-edge areas, increasing the co-occurrence of sharks with large ships. This future increase was similar to 15,000 times greater under high emissions compared with a sustainable development scenario. Results demonstrate that climate-induced global species redistributions that increase exposure to direct sources of mortality are possible, emphasizing the need for quantitative climate-threat predictions in conservation assessments of endangered marine megafauna.

Mobulid rays are among the most vulnerable of chondrichthyans to overexploitation by fisheries due to their low population growth rates. In locations where catch data are lacking, long-term sightings data can provide valuable insight to infer population trends and status. We recorded underwater sighting data of reef manta rays (Mobula alfredi), oceanic manta rays (M. birostris), and shorthorned pygmy devil rays (M. kuhlii) between 2003 and 2023 in the waters off Praia do Tofo in the Inhambane Province, southern Mozambique, one of the major global hotspots for these rays. We modelled sightings data using a hierarchical generalised linear mixed model framework to account for a suite of environmental variables when examining temporal trends. Raw trend models including only 'year' as a predictor showed a 99% decline in sightings of reef manta rays, a 92.5% decline in oceanic manta ray sightings, and an 81.3% decline in devil ray sightings over the 20-year study period. The declining trends persisted for reef and oceanic manta rays once a suite of temporal and environmental variables were accounted for, indicating that the declines were driven by external factors not tested in the models. For shorthorned pygmy devil rays, models that incorporated environmental variables did not retain year as a significant predictor and showed a reduced overall decline in sightings of 36.5%. This indicates that the tested predictors were responsible for approximately half of the observed decline. Anthropogenic factors, particularly fisheries mortality, are likely to have played a significant role in the declining sightings of these three Threatened species. Improved conservation and management measures at a national and international level are critical to prevent further declines, which may otherwise lead to localised extinction.

Conservation translocations are becoming common conservation practice, so there is an increasing need to understand the drivers of plant translocation performance through reviews of cases at global and regional levels. The establishment of the Italian Database of Plant Translocation (IDPlanT) provides the opportunity to review the techniques used in 186 plant translocation cases performed in the last 50 years in the heart of the Mediterranean Biodiversity Hotspot. We described techniques and information available in IDPlanT and used these data to identify drivers of translocation outcomes. We tested the effect of 15 variables on survival of translocated propagules as of the last monitoring date with binomial logistic mixed-effect models. Eleven variables significantly affected survival of transplants: life form, site protection, material source, number of source populations, propagation methods, propagule life stage, planting methods, habitat suitability assessment, site preparation, aftercare, and costs. The integration of vegetation studies in the selection of suitable planting sites significantly increased the success of translocation efforts. Although posttranslocation watering had a generally positive effect on translocation outcome, other aftercare techniques did not always increase transplant survival. Finally, we found that how funds were spent appeared to be more important than the actual amount spent. Plant translocations in Italy and in the Mediterranean area should account for the complexity of speciation, gene flow, and plant migrations that has led to local adaptations and has important implications for the choice and constitution of source material.

Background and aims Nitrogen use efficiency (NUE), defined as plant biomass production per unit N assimilated, is an important component of plant resource use strategies as well as a component of ecosystem function. Clarifying the mechanisms underlying the variations of species level NUE is an essential prerequisite for predicting the alterations of ecosystem level N cycling under global change scenarios. While plant NUE is usually examined under the leaf economic spectrum framework, we know little about their associations with broader ecological strategies and evolutionary history. Methods Using a comparative method, we evaluated the links between NUE and functional traits, Grime’s CSR ecological strategies, and phylogeny for 73 species in a temperate steppe of northern China. Results Plant NUE was strongly constrained by phylogeny, showing a unimodal relationship with taxa divergence times. Under the CSR framework, species with greater R-selection (ruderality) typically had lower NUE. Both phylogeny and R-selection were more important than single functional traits in predicting the species level variations of NUE. Conclusions Our results highlight the role of phylogeny in structuring the species level variations of plant NUE and established a link between species CSR strategies and NUE, which sheds light on understanding the divergence and convergence in plants in response to the most growth-limiting nutrient.