This study investigated betacyanin stabilization from red dragon fruit peel using integrated computational and experimental approaches. HPLC identified betanin and phyllocactin as primary components. Density Functional Theory (DFT) screened molecular interactions, identifying sodium alginate (SA) and low-methoxyl pectin (LMP) as wall materials due to strong binding affinities. Consequently, maltodextrin (MD) composites with SA or LMP (1-3% w/v) were freeze-dried. Experimental results support the DFT screening trends; MD-SA2 and MD-LMP2 achieved higher betacyanin content (93.81 and 88.00 mg/100 g, respectively) than the MD control (77.93 mg/100 g). FTIR confirmed interactions consistent with optimized DFT structures. Thermal degradation (60-80 °C) followed first-order kinetics (R2 > 0.98). Encapsulated betacyanins showed high stability at 80 °C (t₁/₂ = 26.41-26.87 min), outperforming the non-encapsulated betacyanins. High retention (>94%) was maintained during pasteurization (72 °C, 15 s). These findings demonstrate that molecularly guided ionic hydrocolloid systems show potential to protect sensitive pigments during thermal food processing.

Withering is a critical stage in white tea processing that influences the physicochemical characteristics and quality of the final product. This study evaluated the effects of solar natural withering (SNW) and indoor natural withering (INW) on the phytochemical composition, sensory characteristics, and non-volatile metabolite profiles of white tea produced from the SS-3 purple-leaf tea cultivar. Results showed that SNW led to a faster loss of moisture content than INW and was associated with significant decreases in total phenolic content (TPC), total flavonoid content (TFC), and total anthocyanin content (TAC) during the withering process. These compositional differences were accompanied by sensory characteristics, with white tea produced by SNW showing significantly lower bitterness and thickness scores than tea produced by INW. Non-targeted metabolomic profiling identified 260 putatively annotated non-volatile metabolites, of which flavonoids and phenolic acids were the predominant chemical classes. Differential metabolite analysis (VIP > 1, FC > 2 or < 0.5, adjusted p < 0.05) identified 128 and 39 differentially accumulated metabolites (DAMs) under SNW and INW conditions, respectively. Pathway enrichment analysis indicated that metabolites associated with arginine biosynthesis were predominantly enriched under INW, whereas metabolites mapped to flavonoid biosynthesis and zeatin biosynthesis pathways were represented under SNW. Overall, the results demonstrate that withering conditions were associated with differences in moisture loss, phytochemical composition, sensory attributes, and non-volatile metabolite profiles during the production of white tea from the SS-3 purple-leaf cultivar. These findings provide additional insight into the metabolite changes associated with different withering conditions during white tea processing.

Purple-leaf tea cultivars are widely used to produce green, oolong, and black teas because of their distinctive phytochemical composition; however, their characteristics in white tea remain comparatively underexplored. This study compared white teas produced from two purple-leaf cultivars (SS-2 and SS-3) and one green-leaf cultivar (GMBS-1), harvested during a single plucking period and processed under the same manufacturing conditions. Three biological replicates were prepared for each cultivar. Non-targeted UHPLC-HRMS-based metabolomics, combined with multivariate statistical analysis and quantitative descriptive analysis (QDA), were applied to characterize non-volatile metabolite profiles and examine their statistical relationships with selected sensory attributes. White tea produced from SS-3 contained significantly higher concentrations of Catechin, EGCG, EC, and ECG and exhibited greater antioxidant activity than the other cultivars. Non-targeted metabolomic analysis detected 189 putatively annotated non-volatile metabolites, with flavonoids representing the predominant chemical class. Among these, 65 annotated metabolites were identified as differentially accumulated among cultivars (VIP >1, FC > 2 or < 0.6, and adj. p < 0.05). Pathway enrichment analysis indicated that flavonoid biosynthesis, phenylpropanoid biosynthesis, arginine biosynthesis, and arginine and proline metabolism were among the pathways represented by the differential metabolites. Exploratory correlation-based analyses identified statistical relationships between 36 putatively annotated non-volatile metabolites and four sensory attributes. Because volatile compounds were not analyzed, aroma-related sensory attributes were excluded from these analyses. Overall, the findings indicate cultivar-associated differences in phytochemical composition, non-volatile metabolite profiles, and selected sensory attributes under a single standardized harvest and processing condition.

This study investigates the effects of ultrasonic-assisted extraction (UAE) methods, specifically bath (35 kHz, 320 W) and probe (250 kHz, 750 W), along with varying extraction times (5, 10, and 15 min), on the bioactive compounds and antioxidant activities of white tea ( Camellia sinensis) extracts from two purple-leaf cultivars (SS-2 and SS-3) and one green-leaf cultivar (GMB-7). High performance liquid chromatography (HPLC) was employed to quantify catechin, epicatechin, epigallocatechin gallate (EGCG), gallic acid, and caffeine. Additional analyzes included total phenolic content (TPC), total flavonoid content (TFC), monomeric anthocyanins, and antioxidant activity (DPPH and FRAP assays). Results showed that UAE probe extraction yielded higher concentrations of bioactive compounds, while the UAE bath preserved greater antioxidant activity. TPC ranged from 318.52 to 352.51 mg GAE/g for the bath method and 327.53 to 376.45 mg GAE/g for the probe. Longer extraction times improved both phytochemical content and antioxidant capacity across all cultivars. Purple-leaf cultivars exhibited significantly higher levels of anthocyanins, polyphenols, and flavonoids ( p < 0.05 ), whereas the green-leaf cultivar demonstrated a higher carotenoid content. Multivariate analyzes, including principal component analysis (PCA) and heat map visualization, revealed different clustering patterns based on cultivar type and extraction method, explaining 70.82% of total variance. These findings highlight the effectiveness of UAE techniques in producing bioactive-rich white tea extracts, particularly from purple-leaf cultivars, with potential applications in functional foods, nutraceuticals, and cosmetics.

Withering is a crucial step in tea production that reduces the moisture content and induces biochemical changes in tea leaves. The withering process triggers oxidative stress by accumulating reactive oxygen species (ROS) in tea leaves. The presence of flavonol glycosides is crucial for tea quality and tea's stress response to environmental changes pre- and post-harvest. However, the role of flavonol glycosides during withering remains unexplored. The degradation of flavonol glycosides during withering is mainly attributed to the enzymatic antioxidant defense system, which produces flavonol aglycones and soluble sugars that protect leaf cells from oxidative stress. This degradation contributes to a sweeter taste and enhances the taste and aroma of tea. This review emphasizes the role of the withering process and the degradation of flavonol glycosides, highlighting their role in neutralizing ROS formation as a response to oxidative stress, and discusses how changes in flavonol glycosides contribute to the taste of tea. The importance of the withering process in the degradation of flavonol glycosides is also highlighted. Further research is needed to understand the dynamic changes of flavonol glycosides during the withering process, which is essential to improving tea quality.

Betacyanin is a natural bioactive pigment known for its promising health benefits. This study aimed to preserve betacyanin through encapsulation process with combinations of maltodextrin (MD) and pectin (PE), as well as evaluate the physical properties and morphological characteristics as quality parameters. Three wall material formulations were used: MP1 (39% MD + 1% PE), MP2 (38% MD + 2% PE), and MP3 (37% MD + 3% PE). All samples were analysed for physical properties, including color, hygroscopicity, solubility, particle size analysis, as well as morphological characteristics using scanning electron microscopy (SEM) and chemical interactions using Fourier-transform infrared spectroscopy (FTIR). The highest solubility was observed in MP1 (96.96%), while MP3 exhibited the lowest hygroscopicity (7.55%). A strong negative correlation was found between particle size and surface area. SEM images revealed that all treatments formed glassy, porous structures. FTIR analysis confirmed the interaction between betacyanin and the wall materials, with betacyanin remaining the predominant compound in the encapsulated powders. Overall, this study demonstrates that the encapsulation process significantly influences the quality and stability of betacyanin and increases the value-added of red dragon fruit peels as a sustainable bioactive colorant.

Betacyanins are bioactive pigments found in red dragon fruit peels with potential health benefits, but their stability and bioaccessibility are low. This study aimed to investigate the impact of using dietary fiber inulin (IN) combined with malrodextrin (MD) as wall materials for the encapsulation of betacyanin on its physicochemical properties, storage stability, and in vitro release behavior. Different concentrations of MD and IN were tested at 30% MD + 10% IN (T1), 20% MD + 20% IN (T2), 10% MD + 30% IN (T3), and 40% MD (control). The results showed that the combination of MD and IN reduced the moisture content and water activity, increased the drying yield, and improved the hygroscopy and solubility of betacyanin extract. Furthermore, the T3 combination showed the highest encapsulation efficiency, betacyanin (BTC), phenolic content (TPC), flavonoid content (TFC), as well as antioxidant activity. FTIR analysis confirmed the effective encapsulation of betacyanin. The T1 combination exhibited the lowest degradation constant (k) and the longest stability of betacyanin storage half-life (t1/2 = 99 weeks). Additionally, the combination of MD and IN effectively improved the stability of betacyanins during simulated gastrointestinal digestion, improving the bioaccessibility of betacyanin with higher concentrations of IN (T3), resulting in the higher bioaccessibility of betacyanin (57.11%). In conclusion, this study demonstrates that the use of a combination of MD and IN as dietary fiber wall materials can improve the stability and bioaccessibility of betacyanin extract, ultimately leading to its wider utilization and potential health benefits as functional natural food colorants.

Dietary plant sources contain numerous bioactive compounds, mainly phenolic compounds, which are important for their antioxidant and antiinflammatory capacities. This review will discuss the ability of dietary phenolic compounds to inhibit oxidative stress and inflammation conditions, the different mechanisms and pathways involved, and the influence on gene expression. The lack of human study data on the antioxidant and antiinflammatory activities of phenolic compounds from dietary sources will be also indicated.

Mexico has the largest diversity of genetic resources for maize in the world, with about 59 different landraces. However, little is known about their wet‐milling characteristics. The aim of this study was to determine whether 15 Mexican blue maize ( Zea mays L.) genotypes of Elotero de Sinaloa landrace collected in the northwestern region of Mexico have suitable wet‐milling properties. Great variability of physical, compositional, and wet‐milling characteristics among these blue maize genotypes was observed. The FAUAS‐457 and FAUAS‐488 maize genotypes had similar starch yield and starch recovery as reported for the wet‐milling industry, which indicated that they may be useful as a source of extractable starch. Residual protein levels in the starch fractions were in the range of 0.39–0.68%, and total solids recovery exhibited a mean value of 98.8%, indicating acceptable efficacy of the wet‐milling process. This process afforded starches from blue maize genotypes with low protein contents. Wet‐milling fractions correlated with the physical and chemical properties of the kernels. Our results indicate that Mexican blue maize genotypes contain characteristics that make them appropriate and utilizable at the industrial level, and they can also be valuable for improving wet‐milling characteristics of maize through breeding programs.

Yerba mate tea (YMT) has a chemopreventive role in a variety of inflammatory diseases. The objective was to determine the capability of YMT and mate saponins to prevent azoxymethane (AOM)-induced colonic inflammation in rats. YMT (2% dry leaves, w/v, as a source of drinking fluid) (n = 15) and mate saponins (0.01% in the diet, at a concentration present in one cup of YMT) (n = 15) were given ad libitum to rats 2 weeks prior to AOM-injection until the end of the study; while control rats (n = 15) received a basal diet and drinking water. After 8-weeks of study, total colonic mucosa was scraped (n = 3 rats/group) and the remaining colons (n =12 rats/group) were cut into three equal sections and aberrant crypt foci (ACF) were analyzed. YMT reduced ACF formation from 113 (control group) to 89 (P < 0.05). YMT and mate saponins reduced the expression of proinflammatory molecules COX-2 and iNOS with concomitant reduction in p-p65 (P < 0.05). Immunohistochemical analysis of the formalin-fixed middle colons showed that YMT and mate saponins reduced the expression of p-p65(ser311) by 45.7% and 43.1%, respectively, in comparison to the control (P < 0.05). In addition, the expression of molecules upstream of NF-κB such as p-IκB-α and p-GSK-3β(Y216) was downregulated by YMT 24.7% and 24.4%, respectively (P < 0.05). Results suggest the mechanism involved in the chemopreventive effect of YMT and mate saponin consumption in AOM induced-colonic inflammation in rats is through inhibition of NF-κB.

Ilex paraguariensis St. Hilaire tree is native to South America and its dried leaves are used to prepare a traditional beverage called Yerba Mate tea. The aim of this study was to assess the anticancer properties of yerba mate saponins in vitro models. HT-29 (p53 mutant) and RKO (wild type p53) cells were treated with mate saponins (1- 200 mu M). Mate saponins inhibited HT-29 (IC50 = 202 mu M) and RKO (IC50 = 181 mu M) cell proliferation. Mate saponins arrested HT-29 and RKO cells at G1 to S phase by significantly upregulating p21 and p27 proteins, and caused apoptosis through induction of Bax:Bcl-2 protein expression. Mate saponins induced apoptosis and cytotoxicity in human colorectal cancer cells independent of p53 status. Yerba mate tea saponins inhibit human colon cancer cell proliferation.

SCOPE:The biological functions of caffeoylquinic acid (CQA) derivatives from various plant sources have been partially elucidated. The objectives were to isolate and purify diCQAs from Yerba mate tea leaves and assess their anti-inflammatory and anti-cancer capabilities in vitro and explore their mechanism of action.METHODS AND RESULTS:Methanol extracts of dried mate leaves were resolved by flash chromatography and further purified resulting in two fractions one containing 3,4- and 3,5-diCQAs and the other 4,5-diCQA with NMR-confirmed structures. Both fractions inhibited LPS-induced RAW 264.7 macrophage inflammation by suppressing nitric oxide/inducible nitric oxide and prostaglandin E(2) /cyclooxygenase-2 pathways through inhibiting nucleus translocation of Nuclear factor κB subunits, p50 and p65. The diCQA fractions inhibited Human colon cancer cells CRL-2577 (RKO) and HT-29 cell proliferation by inducing apoptosis in a time- and concentration-dependent manner, but did not affect the protein levels of p21, p27, p53, and Bax:Bcl-2 ratio in RKO cells. In HT-29 cells, however, the diCQA fractions increased Bax:Bcl-2 ratio. The diCQA fractions increased the activation of caspase-8 leading to cleavage of caspase-3 in both RKO and HT-29 colon cancer cells.CONCLUSION:The results suggest that diCQAs in Yerba mate could be potential anti-cancer agents and could mitigate other diseases also associated with inflammation.

Saponins are naturally occurring phytochemicals present in Yerba mate and other plant sources that have been associated with several health benefits. The objective was to extract and partially purify saponins from yerba mate dry leaves and assess their anti‐inflammatory effects on macrophages (RAW 264.7). HPLC and LC/ESI‐MS‐MS were used to identify saponins in chromatographic fractions of methanol extracts. Six fractions A, B, C, D, E, and F, were obtained. Fractions D, E and F had characteristic mate saponin spectra between 800–1200 m/z and major saponins in these fractions were matesaponin 1 [M‐H]− =911and matesaponin 2 [M‐H]− =1057, with minor amounts of matesaponin 3 [M‐H]−=1073, matesaponin 4 [M‐H]− =1219, and matesaponin 5 [M‐H]− =1383. It was determined that dry yerba mate leaves have 10–15 mg total saponins/g, predominately matesaponins 1 and 2. Fractions A, B, and C did not reduce inflammatory markers. Fractions D, E, and F significantly inhibited iNOS (IC35 = 36.3, 29.5, 43.7 μM), PGE2 (IC35 = 23.1, 22.3, 11.7 μM) and COX‐2 (IC35 = 45.7, 32.4, 17.0 μM). Treatments with fraction F (25 μM) resulted in the reduction of LPS‐induced nuclear translocation of nuclear factor‐κB (NFκB) subunits p50 (49.8%) and p65 (49.0%) indicating that mate saponins inhibit inflammation through NFκB pathways. Chemical structure of saponins influenced the inhibition of inflammatory markers in vitro.Research Board, U IllinoisGrant Funding Source: Research Board, University of Illinois

Saponins are naturally occurring metabolites associated with several health benefits. The objective was to quantify and purify saponins from mate dry leaves, and to assess their anti inflammatory and apoptotic mechanisms in human colon cancer cells in vitro. Matesaponins were extracted with methanol from dry leaves, partially purified and quantified. Leaves contained 10–15mg/g dry weight total saponins, predominantly matesaponins 1 and 2. HPLC and LC/ESI-MS-MS identified saponins in six preparative chromatographic fractions (A, B, C, D, E, and F). Major matesaponins were identified as 1 [M–H]−=911 and 2 [M–H]−=1057, with trace amounts of 3 [M–H]−=1073, 4 [M–H]−=1219, and 5 [M–H]−=1383. Fractions D, E, and F significantly inhibited iNOS (IC35=36.3, 29.5, 43.7μM), PGE2 (IC35=23.1, 22.3, 11.7μM) and COX-2 (IC35=45.7, 32.4, 17.0μM). Fraction F reduced nuclear translocation of nuclear factor-κB subunits p50 (49.8%) and p65 (49.0%) and induced apoptosis through suppression of Bcl-2 and increased Bax protein expressions and activated caspase-3 activity. Saponins in leaves of mate prevent inflammation and colon cancer in vitro.

Yerba mate tea (Ilex paraguariensis) is growing in popularity around the world. The objective of this study was to investigate the potential anti-inflammatory effect of yerba mate tea (MT) extracts as well as some of its phytochemicals and their interactions. MT and decaffeinated MT extracts [1-300 mu M chlorogenic acid (CHA) equiv]; CHA, caffeine from MT (matein), and mate saponins (1-300 mu M); quercetin (1-200 mu M); and ursolic and oleanolic acids (1-100 mu M) were tested by measuring their ability to inhibit COX-2/PGE(2) and iNOS/NO pathways in LPS-induced RAW 264.7 macrophages. Mate saponins (IC50 = 20 mu M) and oleanolic acid (IC50 = 80 mu M) significantly inhibited iNOS/NO pathways, whereas ursolic acid showed low or no inhibition at 100 mu M. Quercetin was the most potent inhibitor of pro-inflammatory responses at a concentration 10 times lower than the concentrations used of other compounds (IC50=11.6 mu M for NO, 7.9 mu M for iNOS, and 6.5 mu M for PGE(2)). Combination of quercetin/mate saponins (0.001:0.004, molar ratio) resulted in synergistic interaction inhibiting both NO and PGE2 production. It also suppressed IL-6 and IL-1 beta production and resulted in reduction of LPS-induced nuclear translocation of nuclear factor-kappa B subunits. MT extract did not have a potent anti-inflammatory effect perhaps due to the antagonistic effect of some of its compounds. However, whole MT consumption still has a promising anti-inflammatory outcome mainly through the PGE(2)/COX-2 pathway. To the authors' knowledge, this is the first study demonstrating the efficacy, interactions, and mechanisms of some MT phytochemicals in inhibiting pro-inflammatory responses.

Tea is one of the most widely consumed beverages worldwide. Several studies have suggested that catechins and theaflavins found in tea may reduce the risk of various types of cancers. Major advances have been made to understand the molecular events leading to cancer prevention; however, the evidence is not conclusive. Evidence from pre-clinical and clinical studies also suggests that persistent inflammation can progress to cancer. Several possible mechanisms of action may explain the cancer preventive aspects of tea components specifically anti-inflammatory effects. In regards to brain health, green tea catechins have been recognized as multifunctional compounds for neuroprotection with beneficial effects on vascular function and mental performance. Theanine, a unique amino acid in tea, enhances cognition in humans and has neuroprotective effects. Human interventional studies with well characterized tea products are needed.

Walnut (Juglans sp.) cultivars of commercial importance are of the Persian walnut (Juglans regia L.), a species which is favored because of its large kernel and thin shell. Walnut is appreciated as a snack and is used extensively in baking and confectionary products. Walnut contains a high amount of lipid (∼62%–70%) [11-13] and not surprisingly, the majority of the volatile compounds identifi ed in walnut is derived via breakdown of unsaturated fatty acids (Table 7.3). The volatile composition of walnut was fi rst examined by Clark and Nursten [14] (Table 7.3). They identifi ed 29 compounds, including eight carbonyls, four alcohols, and two terpenes. Among 44 volatiles later identifi ed in walnut by the same authors [15], hexanal, pentanal, 2-methyl-2-pentenal, and 2,3-pentanedione were suggested as the most important aroma contributors (Table 7.3). These same four compounds were among 118 volatiles detected by dynamic headspace analysis (DHA)-GC-MS in walnuts from three geographical locations (Table 7.3) [16]. Considerable differences in volatile profi les were observed among the walnut samples studied; however, all contained an abundance of volatiles originating via oxidative decomposition of linoleic acid [16]. Likewise, the volatile components of walnut oil also is primarily products of lipid oxidation (Table 7.4) [7,17,18]. Moderate levels of lipidderived compounds maybe important for the generation of typical walnut aroma; however, excessive oxidation may have a negative impact on fl avor [13,17,19]. To date, there are no detailed reports on the characteristic aroma components of walnut.