Climate change presents regionally diverse risks to agriculture, with altered precipitation patterns and increased temperatures threatening crop yields and food security. To support more coherent and actionable adaptation strategies, this study applies and compares the impact chain methodology across five European case study regions: Gotland (Sweden), Tarn-et-Garonne (France), the Southern Great Plain (Hungary), Almería (Spain), and the Azores (Portugal). Drawing on stakeholder co-production and high-resolution climate projections, the study identifies key biophysical and institutional drivers of vulnerability. Across all regions, the results highlight a consistent shift toward wetter winters and drier summers, with significant implications for irrigation demand and crop water stress. Despite climatic differences, common impact pathways emerge: water scarcity affecting agricultural productivity, soil degradation leading to long-term yield loss, and institutional fragmentation delaying adaptation. The consolidated impact chain synthesizes these shared pathways and links them to regionally suitable land-use-based adaptation and mitigation solutions (LAMS). The findings show that while LAMS can address local biophysical vulnerabilities, their implementation depends critically on institutional capacity, governance coordination, and access to resources. Although similar risk patterns emerge across regions, the effective implementation of adaptation measures must be tailored to local ecological, economic, and governance contexts to ensure feasibility, acceptance, and long-term impact. This study demonstrates how impact chains serve as an effective visual tool to mind map climate risks, engage with local stakeholders, and shape climate action interventions and policies. In this work, impact chains were co-created with case study stakeholders allowing for a shared and broad understanding of the different risk elements, their dynamics and how they can be addressed by adaptation solutions. By linking local assessments with broader policy frameworks, impact chains offer a scalable approach to support climate-resilient land use and agricultural planning under the European Green Deal and beyond.

Deposition of phosphorus (P) is important for the nutrient supply to forests and open land but also contributes to the eutrophication of surface waters. Deposition to open land can be measured as bulk deposition while deposition to forests cannot be measured directly, due to internal circulation of P within forest canopies. This study aimed to quantify the total deposition of P to open land and forests in Sweden. The contribution from dry and wet deposition to the deposition to open land was investigated with bulk deposition sampling equipment placed under and outside a roof. The difference with and without the roofs was small and inconsistent. It was concluded that the deposition of P to open land occurred mostly as dry deposition. To estimate the dry deposition of P to coniferous forests, surrogate surfaces consisting of Teflon string samplers were used positioned under roofs. Colocated measurements of dry deposition to forests and bulk deposition to open land at ten different sites across Sweden showed that P deposition was up to five times higher for forests compared to open land. The highest deposition of P to the open land and forests was found for the inland of southern Sweden. This geographical pattern implied only a small contribution from transboundary sources of P outside Sweden. The deposition of P during 2017-2023 was on average 78 g ha(-1) yr(-1) to open land in north and 240 g ha(-1) yr(-1) in inland south Sweden. Corresponding deposition to forests was 120 and 730 g ha(-1) yr(-1).

A multi-criteria spatial analysis within the context of the Horizon 2020 RethinkAction project is presented. RethinkAction is aligned with the EU Green Deal and the Paris Agreement that focuses on the important role of land use planning in achieving long-term climate mitigation and adaptation goals. To that end, the project employs a cross-sectoral planning decision-making platform to empower citizens and decision-makers in fostering climate action across Europe. Focused on the establishment and maintenance of green urban ecosystems and limiting urban sprawl, methods proposed in this paper employs techniques to develop suitability maps for urban land-based adaptation and mitigation solutions, such as establishment and maintenance of green urban ecosystems (GUE) and limiting the urban sprawl (LUS). The methodology, suitability factors applied, and results for each Land-based Adaptation Measure (LAMS), shedding light on the intricate relationship between urban planning and climate action are described.

Tree-microbe interactions are essential for forest ecosystem functioning. Most plant-microbe research has focused on the rhizosphere, while composition of microbial communities in the phyllosphere remains underexplored. Here, we use 16S rRNA gene sequencing to explore differences between beech and Scots pine phyllospheric microbiomes at the European continental scale, map their functional profiles, and elucidate the role of host trees, forest features, and environmental factors such as climate and atmospheric deposition in phyllosphere microbiota assembly. We identified tree species and the associated foliar trait (specifically carbon:nitrogen ratio) as primary drivers of the bacterial communities. We characterized taxonomical and functional composition of epiphytic bacteria in the phyllosphere of beech and Scots pine across an environmental gradient from Fennoscandia to the Mediterranean area, with major changes in temperature and nitrogen deposition. We also showed that temperature and nitrogen deposition played a crucial role in affecting their assembly for both tree species. This study contributes to advancing our understanding on factors shaping phyllosphere microbial communities in beech and Scots pine at the European continental scale, highlighting the need of broad-scale comparative studies (covering a wide range of foliar traits and environmental conditions) to elucidate how phyllosphere microbiota mediates ecosystem responses to global change. Phyllosphere microbiota of beech and Scots pine at European continental scale is influenced by the host species and associated foliar traits, as well as by temperature and nitrogen deposition, according to 16S rRNA gene sequencing analyses on leaf epiphytic microbes.

In the low deposition situation of today at many of the long-term Swedish forest monitoring sites, the deposition measured as precipitation to the open field, i.e. bulk deposition of oxidized sulphur (S) is often higher or equal to deposition of S sampled under the forest canopies, i.e. as throughfall. This suggests that the total S deposition estimated using throughfall is underestimated. The reason for this is direct exchange of S with the forest canopies, leading to an underestimation which becomes evident in low-deposition areas. We describe a new method to estimate the dry deposition of S to coniferous forest based on measurements with Teflon string samplers as surrogate surfaces, in combination with measurements of the net throughfall for sodium (throughfall subtracted with wet deposition). The wet deposition was estimated from bulk deposition measurements on the open field, corrected for dry deposition to the collectors. The method was applied for Norway spruce forests at monitoring sites across Sweden during nine years 2014-2022, and total deposition was calculated based on wet deposition and the estimated dry deposition. The estimated annual total deposition of S as a mean value for coniferous forests ranged between 0.8 and 5.2 kg S ha(-1) yr(-1) with lowest values in northern Sweden and highest in southwest Sweden. The share of dry deposition of the total S deposition was between 20 and 53%. The mean annual deposition of S measured as throughfall during 2014-2022 for three different regions in Sweden was between 16 and 41% lower compared to the corresponding total deposition estimated with the new method. The canopy exchange of S was analyzed on a monthly basis as the difference between the estimated total deposition and the measured throughfall deposition of S. At most sites, there was a canopy uptake of S during the summer months and a leakage of S during the winter months. This indicates that the canopy exchange of S is a phenomenon that involves some biological activity.

Human activities have greatly increased the reactive nitrogen in the biosphere, thus profoundly altering global nitrogen cycling. The large increase in nitrogen deposition over the past few decades has led to eutrophication in natural ecosystems, with negative effects on forest health and biodiversity. Recent studies, however, have reported oligotrophication in forest ecosystems, constraining their capacity as carbon sinks. Here we demonstrate the widespread biological transformation of atmospheric reactive nitrogen in the canopies of European forests by combining nitrogen deposition quantification with measurements of the stable isotopes in nitrate and molecular analyses across ten forests through August–October 2016. We estimate that up to 80% of the nitrate reaching the soil via throughfall was derived from canopy nitrification, equivalent to a flux of up to 5.76 kg N ha −1 yr −1 . We also document the presence of autotrophic nitrifiers on foliar surfaces throughout European forests. Canopy nitrification thus consumes deposited ammonium and increases nitrate inputs to the soil. The results of this study highlight widespread canopy nitrification in European forests and its important contribution to forest nitrogen cycling.

Trends for the atmospheric deposition of sulphur (S) and inorganic nitrogen (inorg-N) to forests and changes in the forest soil water chemistry in Sweden have been assessed since 1985, with special focus on the last 25 years, based on measurements within the Swedish Throughfall Monitoring Network (SWETHRO). The reductions in the deposition of S and inorg-N in the southern part of Sweden corresponded relatively well with the pollutant emission reductions for S and inorg-N from both EU27 + UK and Sweden during 1996/97-2021/22. For northern Sweden the deposition of S and inorg-N decreased to a lesser extent than both European and Swedish emissions. The bulk deposition of NO3-N has decreased more than the deposition of NH4-N over the last 25-year period, which is consistent with the much larger emission reductions for NOx compared to NH3 from EU27 + UK and Sweden. The S concentrations in the soil water, at 50 cm below soil surface, have decreased during the last 25 years, however somewhat less than the S deposition. At sites with low ANC and pH in the beginning of the period, the increase in ANC was generally greater and the increase in pH was smaller, but at sites with high pH and ANC above zero, the increase in pH was dominant, in line with the nonlinear relationship between pH and ANC in the soil water. The incidence of elevated concentrations of NO3-N in the soil water was highest in southwest Sweden, ranging between 4 and 19 % of all measuring occasions since 1985/86. The reduced deposition of N over the 35-year period was not reflected in the incidence of elevated concentrations of NO3-N in the soil water over time.

Activities that require a permit in Sweden account for a significant part of the environmental impact that jeopardizes the fulfilment of the 16 Swedish National Environmental Quality Objectives (EQOs) set up by the Swedish Parliament. In this study we investigate how the EQOs are perceived as a management tool in the Swedish Environmental Impact Assessment (EIA) process, mainly based on interviews. We have identified several limitations associated with the use of EQOs in EIAs as an effective management tool towards sustainability. These limitations include that the EQOs have a subordinate significance compared with other aspects in the EIA process and that EQOs represent different concepts of sustainability. Furthermore, EQOs have low validity and are set as national objectives, hence separated from the operational level of EIAs. A significant proportion of environmental pressures leading to failure to achieve the EQOs are related to permit requiring activities, hence EIA and the permitting process can be important policy instruments to achieve the Swedish EQOs. Integrating EQOs better into EIAs may facilitate handling of synergies, inconsistencies, and trade-offs between environmental and sectoral objectives. Furthermore, driving forces of environmental problems may be targeted more directly. However, in order for the Swedish EQOs to have a larger impact in the permitting process, the EQO system may need to be adapted, and may also need to be complemented with binding standards or legal norms. Furthermore, clearer guidelines regarding issues to focus on, and necessary templates and documentation may be useful tools to facilitate the process even further.

The yearly, total (dry+wet) deposition of inorganic nitrogen (inorg-N) to Norway spruce forests was estimated with a full spatial coverage over Sweden for a twenty-year period, 2001-2020, based on combined measurements with Teflon string samplers, throughfall deposition and bulk deposition to the open field. The results were based on a novel method to apply estimates of the dry deposition based on measurements at a limited number of sites, to a larger number of sites with only bulk deposition measurements, in turn based on the existence of a strong geographical gradient in the dry deposition of inorg-N from southwest to northeast Sweden. The method should be applicable for other geographical regions where gaseous NH3, NO2 and HNO3 are not main drivers of N dry deposition and where geographical gradients in dry deposition could be defined. It was shown that Norway spruce forests in south Sweden receive more N from deposition than has been previously estimated, based on modelling. Clear time trends were demonstrated for decreased deposition of inorg-N to Norway spruce forests in all parts of Sweden. The decreases were somewhat larger than what could be expected from the decrease in the reported emissions of inorg-N from Europe. The results emphasize that estimates of the total deposition are necessary in order to map levels and follow the development of N deposition in forests.

The demand of renewable energy has increased the interest in whole-tree harvesting. The sustainability of whole-tree harvesting after clear-cutting, from an acidification point of view, depends on two factors: the present acidification status and the further loss of buffering capacity at harvesting. The aims of this study were to investigate the relationship between these two factors at 26 sites along an acidification gradient in Sweden, to divide the sites into risk classes, and to examine the geographical distribution of them in order to provide policy-relevant insights. The present status was represented by the acid neutralizing capacity (ANC) in soil solution, and the loss of buffering capacity was represented by the estimated exceedance of critical biomass harvesting (CBH). The sites were divided into three risk classes combining ANC and exceedance of CBH. ANC and exceedance of CBH were negatively correlated, and most sites had either ANC < 0 and exceedance (high risk) or ANC > 0 and no exceedance (low risk). There was a geographical pattern, with the high risk class concentrated to southern Sweden, which was mainly explained by higher historical sulfur deposition and site productivity in the south. The risk classes can be used in the formulation of policies on whole-tree harvesting and wood ash recycling.

There is mounting evidence demonstrating that fluxes and chemical composition of precipitation is substantially changed after passing through tree canopies, particularly in the case of atmospheric nitrogen (N) compounds, with important implications on forest N cycling. However, the processes underpinning those changes – beyond the leaf retention and/or leaching of N compounds - have been less investigated. In a previous study we provided isotopic evidence that biological nitrification in tree canopies was responsible for significant changes in the amount of NO3- from rainfall to throughfall across two UK forests at high nitrogen (N) deposition. This finding strongly suggested that forest canopies are not just passive filters for precipitation water and dissolved nutrients, and that the microbial life hidden within them can be responsible for transforming atmospheric N before it reaches the soil. We extended the isotopic approach at the European scale, and combined it to next-generation sequence analyses with the aim of elucidating canopy nitrification and identify phyllosphere microbes responsible for it. Specifically, in this study we: 1) estimated the relative contribution of NO3- derived from biological canopy nitrification vs. atmospheric deposition by using δ18O and δ17O of NO3- in rainfall and throughfall water; 2) quantified the functional genes related to nitrification, and finally 3) characterized the microbial communities harboured in tree canopies (i.e., phyllosphere) and in the underlying soils for two dominant tree species in Europe (Fagus sylvatica L. and Pinus sylvestris L.) using metabarcoding techniques. We considered twelve sites included in the European ICP Forests monitoring network, chosen along climate and N deposition gradients, spanning from Fennoscandia to the Mediterranean. We will show that presence of nitrifying microbes (as assessed through qPCR) and their activity (as derived from δ18O and δ17O) were detected in the tree canopies across most of the sites, and that canopy nitrification was significantly correlated with atmospheric N deposition. Finally, we will discuss differences in microbial community structure and composition across phyllosphere (and between the two tree species considered), water and soil samples in the investigated forests. Our study demonstrates the potential of integrating stable isotopes with microbial analyses to advance our understanding on canopy-atmosphere interactions and their contribution to N cycling.

Pa uppdrag av Lansstyrelsen i Vastra Gotalands lan genomfor IVL Svenska Miljoinstitutet, i samarbete med Lunds universitet, matningar av lufthalter, nedfall och markvattenkemi i Vastra Gotalands la ...

The dry and wet deposition of nitrate, NO3−, and ammonium, NH4+, were estimated for Norway spruce forests at ten monitoring sites across Sweden for the years 2014–2017. The particulate dry deposition was estimated based on measurements using Teflon string samplers as surrogate surfaces, in combination with the net throughfall deposition for sodium (throughfall subtracted with wet deposition). The wet deposition was estimated from bulk deposition measurements, corrected for dry deposition to the collectors. There was a strong gradient for total inorganic nitrogen (N) deposition across Sweden from north to southwest, ranging from 2 to 20 kg N ha−1 yr−1. The values for N deposition derived from measurements were for most sites exceeding the corresponding values derived from modelling with the MATCH and EMEP models, in southern Sweden by up to 4–6 kg N ha−1 y−1. Based on comparisons between total and throughfall deposition, the canopy uptake of atmospheric N deposition to Norway spruce forests in Sweden was estimated to be in the range of 0–7 kg N ha−1 yr−1.

During the past twenty years, the Nordic countries (Denmark, Sweden, Finland and Norway) have introduced a range of measures to reduce losses of nitrogen (N) to air and to aquatic environment by leaching and runoff. However, the agricultural sector is still an important N source to the environment, and projections indicate relatively small emission reductions in the coming years. The four Nordic countries have different priorities and strategies regarding agricultural N flows and mitigation measures, and therefore they are facing different challenges and barriers. In Norway farm subsidies are used to encourage measures, but these are mainly focused on phosphorus (P). In contrast, Denmark targets N and uses control regulations to reduce losses. In Sweden and Finland, both voluntary actions combined with subsidies help to mitigate both N and P. The aim of this study was to compare the present situation pertaining to agricultural N in the Nordic countries as well as to provide recommendations for policy instruments to achieve cost effective abatement of reactive N from agriculture in the Nordic countries, and to provide guidance to other countries. To further reduce N losses from agriculture, the four countries will have to continue to take different routes. In particular, some countries will need new actions if 2020 and 2030 National Emissions Ceilings Directive (NECD) targets are to be met. Many options are possible, including voluntary action, regulation, taxation and subsidies, but the difficulty is finding the right balance between these policy options for each country. The governments in the Nordic countries should put more attention to the NECD and consult with relevant stakeholders, researchers and farmer's associations on which measures to prioritize to achieve these goals on time. It is important to pick remaining low hanging fruits through use of the most cost effective mitigation measures. We suggest that N application rate and its timing should be in accordance with the crop need and carrying capacity of environmental recipients. Also, the choice of application technology can further reduce the risk of N losses into air and waters. This may require more region-specific solutions and knowledge-based support with tailored information in combination with further targeted subsidies or regulations.

Matningar av atmosfariskt nedfall och markvattenkemi har bedrivits inom Krondroppsnatet i Kronobergs lan sedan 1996. Under det hydrologiska aret 2017/18 gjordes matningar pa fyra platser i lanet, f ...

Nedfallet av svavel- och kvaveforeningar i Vastra Gotalands lan har under decennier legat langt over vad skogsmarken samt sjoar och vattendrag tal. Det bedrivs darfor en omfattande kalknings-verksa ...

Ammonia emissions vary greatly at a local scale, and effects (eutrophication, acidification) occur primarily close to sources. Therefore it is important that spatially distributed emission estimates are located as accurately as possible. The main source of ammonia emissions is agriculture, and therefore agricultural survey statistics are the most important input data to an ammonia emission inventory alongside per activity estimates of emission potential. In the UK, agricultural statistics are collected at farm level, but are aggregated to parish level, NUTS-3 level or regular grid resolution for distribution to users. In this study, the Modifiable Areal Unit Problem (MAUP), associated with such amalgamation, is investigated in the context of assessing the spatial distribution of ammonia sources for emission inventories. England was used as a test area to study the effects of the MAUP. Agricultural survey data at farm level (point data) were obtained under license and amalgamated to different areal units or zones: regular 1-km, 5-km, 10-km grids and parish level, before they were imported into the emission model. The results of using the survey data at different levels of amalgamation were assessed to estimate the effects of the MAUP on the spatial inventory. The analysis showed that the size and shape of aggregation zones applied to the farm-level agricultural statistics strongly affect the location of the emissions estimated by the model. If the zones are too small, this may result in false emission "hot spots", i.e., artificially high emission values that are in reality not confined to the zone to which they are allocated. Conversely, if the zones are too large, detail may be lost and emissions smoothed out, which may give a false impression of the spatial patterns and magnitude of emissions in those zones. The results of the study indicate that the MAUP has a significant effect on the location and local magnitude of emissions in spatial inventories where amalgamated, zonal data are used.

A bark beetle attack in a Norway spruce forest in southwestern Sweden killed most trees, which however mostly remained standing, and caused elevated nitrate concentrations and subsequent acidification in the soil water. Long-term monitoring showed very low nitrate concentrations in the soil water before the bark beetle attack. High nitrate concentrations remained throughout five years after the initiation of the bark beetle attack until the monitoring was terminated. The increased nitrate concentrations in the soil water were accompanied by a decrease in both pH and the acid neutralizing capacity, ANC. The significance for future nitrogen and acidity leakage to ground- and surface waters is discussed in relation to the expected future increase in the frequencies of bark beetle attacks in boreal and northern temperate forests.

Finland has a long tradition of utilizing forest-based biomass for energy and industry purposes and the use has steadily increased in the past decade due to changes in international and regional energy policies. Intensive harvesting practices, in which a larger proportion of the woody biomass is removed from the forest stand, are becoming more common. The objectives of this study were (i) to evaluate the spatial and temporal extent of soil surface disturbance caused by stump-root system harvesting and (ii) to quantify how much biomass and nitrogen is removed from the stand in stump and coarse root harvesting. The extent of surface disturbance was assessed in three clear-cut Norway spruce (Picea abies, (L.) Karst.) stands in southern and central Finland, differing in time since harvest. To determine the biomass distribution of the stump-root system, stumps and coarse roots were excavated at one of the experimental stands. Across all age classes (time since harvest) less soil surface had remained undisturbed at the stump harvesting sites (52%) than at the sites where only mechanical site preparation (28%) had been carried out. Thus, the findings of this study indicate that soil disturbance caused by stump harvesting can exist on forest soil surface for more than a decade following harvest. The total biomass of the stump-root system in the stand was estimated to 39.3 Mg ha(-1) and 79% of this biomass was removed during stump harvesting and consequently, 8.3 Mg ha(-1) of stump-root biomass remained in soil. The stump-root system accounted for 17% of the whole-tree biomass, and coarse roots and fine coarse roots represented a significant portion of it (73%). Thus, the stump-root system represents a large biomass component in boreal forest stands. However, forest management utilizing stumps may result in carbon losses from the stand.