Implicit motives provide a valuable construct for motivational research, that allows to explain diverse behaviours but comes with high manual effort for being assessed. In this work, we present an automatic approach to measure motive imagery in Picture Story Exercise (PSE) stories and running text. We compare two machine learning models, one based on the marker word approach and one grasping sentences more holistically with a sentence embedding, and find the latter to outperform the first on a dataset of unseen PSE stories, reaching a correlation with human coders of >.80 on persons’ motives. We further demonstrate the embedding model’s capabilities by showing correlations of the automatically encoded motive scores with related behavioural outcome criteria on large amounts of unseen longitudinal data from the National Child Development Study. Among others, motives encoded by the model at participant’s age eleven are associated with sports activity, academic achievement and voluntary work years and decades later. Our research raises hopes of using machine learning to encode implicit motives in written text, which would facilitate further research by lowering manual effort of implicit motive assessment by orders of magnitude.

Previous studies have demonstrated that motivational regulation strategies (MRS) are effective in addressing and overcoming motivational problems. In the present empirical studies, the use of MRS in a motivational conflict and their relationship with the experience of motivational interference are examined. In two online studies (Study 1: N = 214 and Study 2: N = 242), students were presented with a motivational conflict scenario. Subsequently their use of specific MRS, including the use of motivation regulation strategies and quality of their use, as well as their experience of motivational interference was assessed via questionnaires. Results showed that both the use of motivation regulation strategies and application quality of MRS were associated with lower motivational interference. Certain strategies were associated with less interference, though not all MRS had a significant impact. These findings suggest that students can self-regulate their experience of motivational interference and highlight the potential for developing self-regulation skills in educational contexts, including new strategies alongside existing ones.

Across two studies, we conducted a preliminary psychometric examination of the newly developed Motivational Awareness Questionnaire (MAQ). Motivational awareness is the ability to consciously differentiate, verbalize, and analyze one’s own motivational states and use this knowledge for deliberate motivation and behavior regulation. Study 1 evaluated the initial MAQ in 142 students. The proposed five-factor structure was tested and not confirmed, necessitating exploratory revisions. Study 2 (N = 102) reassessed a revised three-factor version and included ambulatory assessment data capturing motivational states. Although the Bayesian confirmatory factor analysis did not support the proposed three-factor structure (poor model fit), the subscales demonstrated satisfactory internal consistencies. Expected associations with emotional awareness and mindfulness provided initial evidence of convergent associations. Higher differentiation of motivation was associated with less motivational interference and with lower levels of negative affect. In conclusion, the MAQ represents a promising first attempt at measuring motivational awareness, but future research with larger samples is needed to refine the factor structure and establish its validity.

Background: In the domain of psychology, declarative concepts are a core component of the foundational knowledge that is to be learned. A promising means to enhance retention and comprehension of such concepts is to provide learners with open-ended quiz questions and corrective feedback (i.e., practice quizzing). As adapting quiz question complexity to the individual learners can increase the benefits of practice quizzing, in previous research adaptations based on the real-time process measures of cognitive load ratings and of self-assessed quizzing performance during quizzing have been developed. To date, however, it is unclear whether and, if so, why the two types of adaptation differ in their effectiveness. Aims: The main goal of the present study was to compare the two adaptation mechanisms in learning declarative psychology concepts via practice quizzing. Sample: Participants were N = 177 university students. Methods: After watching an e-lecture on new declarative psychology concepts, the learners were randomly assigned to either note-taking or to responding to quiz questions. The complexity of the quiz questions was increased either according to a preset sequence, or dependent on subjective cognitive load, self-assessed quizzing performance, or both. Results: Cognitive-load-adapted quizzing was most effective. These benefits were mediated via higher levels of knowledge whenever increases in quiz question complexity were suggested by the adaptation mechanism/took place in the preset sequence, which fostered quizzing performance, which, in turn, fostered learning outcomes. Conclusions: This study shows that simple cognitive load ratings are a promising basis for adapting practice quizzing in learning declarative psychology concepts.

Motivational regulation is essential for effective learning when facing obstacles in higher education. Students failing to maintain (or increase) their motivation may be prone to dysfunctional learning behaviors, such as academic procrastination. Frequently, motivational challenges in an academic course of study arise from environmental conditions that should thus foster the need to develop knowledge about motivational regulation strategies. However, research has yet to determine the extent to which motivational regulation strategy knowledge develops over the course of study and whether this knowledge is associated with changes in academic procrastination (as an important example of dysfunctional learning behavior). Thus, we aimed to examine how intraindividual changes in motivational regulation strategy knowledge are related to intraindividual changes in academic procrastination over the course of study. We hypothesized that motivational regulation strategy knowledge would increase across four semesters and that this increase would lead to a decrease in academic procrastination. For this purpose, we used a cohort sequential longitudinal data set with six measurement occasions across four semesters and seven cohorts (which were based on students' university semester at the first measurement occasion) comprising N = 1,344 undergraduate students. On average, motivational regulation strategy knowledge increased significantly over students' course of study. Results of a bivariate latent change score model indicated that positive development in motivational regulation strategy knowledge was associated with a subsequent decrease in academic procrastination, but not vice versa. The findings thus suggest a certain temporal causality, implying that motivational regulation strategy knowledge is relevant for overcoming academic procrastination.

At universities, as in other educational settings, multitasking among students is a widespread phenomenon, leading educational staff to worry about its negative consequences. Using the experience sampling method and adopting a self-determination theory perspective, we examine the situative relationships of autonomous and controlled motivation for studying with multitasking, as well as students' concentration and mood. In total, 138 undergraduate students answered up to six daily questionnaires for 7 days, yielding 1,770 responses during study situations. Results suggest that more autonomous study motivation is associated with less multitasking, while more controlled motivation is associated with more multitasking during studying. Additionally, we found that autonomous motivation is linked to higher levels of concentration and better mood, while controlled motivation is unrelated to concentration or mood. Furthermore, results show that in situations with multitasking in comparison to situations with monotasking concentration was lower, whereas affect did not differ. We used multilevel mediation analyses to test if the situational relationship of motivation and concentration/affect is mediated by multitasking. Mediation analyses did not reveal significant results, although the indirect effect of autonomous motivation on concentration via multitasking was marginally significant. Implications for research on multitasking and self-determination theory are discussed. Also, potential functionalities as well as costs and benefits of multitasking are considered.

In the context of instructional design and self-regulated learning research, the notion of mental effort allocation, monitoring, and control has gained increasing attention. Bringing together a cognitive perspective, focusing on Cognitive Load Theory, and a motivational perspective, merging central accounts from Situated Expectancy Value Theory and Self-Determination Theory, we plea for a three-fold conception of effort that clearly distinguishes the different psychological sources of experiencing and allocating effort in learning environments: effort-by-complexity, effort-by-need frustration, and effort-by-allocation. Such a detailed conception has important implications for how effort should be studied and how it can be influenced by instructional support or by the learning individual itself. A first conclusion we draw is that cognitively oriented research needs to be careful when taking students’ self-reports on the “effortfulness” of a task as an indication of the object-level cognitive requirements of the task, as such appraisals may also reflect the affective-emotional requirements of task execution as well as motivational beliefs regarding the likelihood of success and meaningfulness of a task. A second conclusion is that instructional procedures rooted in cognition-oriented theory ideally are complemented by motivation theory to support student learning optimally.

Multitasking during studying is frequent among students. In this experience sampling study we examine if multitasking during studying can be explained by situational study motivation and the personality trait grit; and if grit moderates the relationship of situational motivation and multitasking. Eighty-eight students participated. All participants planned to write an important exam within the upcoming 2 weeks. Situational motivation was conceptualized along the lines of self-determination theory, differentiating between autonomous and controlled motivation. Also, we assessed students’ grit. Hypotheses were tested using multilevel modeling in MPlus. As predicted, students multitasked less when situational study motivation was autonomous (vs. controlled). Contrary to predictions, we did not find a significant main effect of grit on multitasking. However, the interaction effect was significant, indicating that in situations with relatively controlled study motivation grittier students are more likely to refrain from multitasking than their less gritty peers.

Abstract: Procrastination is the irrational delay of an intended task and is common among students. A delay can only be defined as procrastination when it is voluntary, the action was intended but not implemented, and the delay is accompanied by subjective discomfort. Established scales of procrastination cover mainly behavioral aspects but have neglected the emotional aspect. This inaccuracy concerning the construct validity might entail misconceptions of procrastination. Accordingly, we developed and validated the Behavioral and Emotional Academic Procrastination Scale (BEPS), which covers all aspects of the definition of procrastination. The 6-item scale measuring self-reported academic procrastination was tested in three studies. Study 1 ( N = 239) evaluated the psychometric qualities of the BEPS, indicating good item characteristics and internal consistency. Study 2 ( N = 1,441) used confirmatory factor analysis and revealed two correlated factors: one covering the behavioral aspect and the other reflecting the emotional aspect. Measurement invariance was shown through longitudinal and multigroup confirmatory factor analyses. Study 3 ( N = 234) provided evidence for the scale’s convergent validity through correlations with established procrastination scales, self-efficacy, and neuroticism. The BEPS thus economically operationalizes all characteristics of academic procrastination and appears to be a reliable and valid self-report measure.

Although achievement situations trigger multiple emotions and learners experience both negative and positive emotions simultaneously, procrastination research typically examines isolated relationships between specific emotions and procrastination. The potential interplay of negative and positive emotions regarding procrastination is often overlooked, although this perspective can shed light on their dynamic relationships. Moreover, past studies primarily address the behavioral aspect of procrastination (delay) while overlooking its emotional facet (subjective discomfort), albeit this differentiation could enhance understanding of procrastination and its correlates. The present study explores the understudied interplay of the two most frequently experienced negative (anxiety) and positive (hope) exam-related emotions regarding students’ procrastination tendencies with differentiated behavioral and emotional dimensions. The study analyzes cross-sectional data from two independent studies (Nstudy1 = 266, Nstudy2 = 468) conducted in Germany among university students. Latent profile analyses (LPA) reveal three similar profiles across both studies—High Anxiety–Low Hope, Low Anxiety–High Hope and Moderate Anxiety–Moderate Hope— and two study-specific profiles namely, Low Anxiety–Moderate Hope (Study 1) and High Anxiety–Moderate Hope (Study 2). Females compared to males are more likely to belong to the anxiety-dominated profiles. Overall, students in anxiety-dominated profiles report higher scores whereas students in hope-dominated profiles report lower scores on both behavioral and emotional dimensions of academic procrastination. This study advances an integrated approach that incorporates the combined effects of both negative and positive emotions concerning procrastination. Findings further inform research efforts towards identifying risk and protective emotional factors to develop tailored intervention against academic procrastination.

Following the (revised) latent state-trait theory, the present study investigates the within-subject reliability, occasion specificity, common consistency, and construct validity of cognitive control measures in an intensive longitudinal design. These indices were calculated applying dynamic structural equation modeling while accounting for autoregressive effects and trait change. In two studies, participants completed two cognitive control tasks (Stroop and go/no-go) and answered questions about goal pursuit, self-control, executive functions, and situational aspects, multiple times per day. The sample (aged 18-30 years in both studies) consisted of 21 participants (14 female) in the pilot study and 70 participants (48 female) in the main study. Findings indicated poor within-subject reliability for the Stroop task error rate and reaction time difference between congruent and incongruent trials and moderate to good within-subject reliability for the go/no-go task error rate and reaction time. Occasion specificity-the systematic variance accounted for by state residuals-was at a modest level (between 1.4% and 11.1%) for the Stroop error rate and reaction time difference, and at a moderate level (between 16.1% and 37.2% for the go/no-go error rate and reaction time) in the two studies. Common consistency-the variance accounted for by latent trait variables-was at a moderate to high level for all of the investigated scores. Indicative of construct validity, the Stroop and go/no-go task error rates correlated positively with each other on the within- and between-subject level. Within-subject correlations between task scores and subjective self-control measures were very small and mostly nonsignificant.

Procrastination is the irrational delay of an intended task and is common among students. A delay can only be defined as procrastination when it is voluntary, the action was intended but not implemented, and the delay is accompanied by subjective discomfort. Established scales of procrastination cover mainly behavioral aspects but have neglected the emotional aspect. This inaccuracy concerning the construct validity might entail misconceptions of procrastination. Accordingly, we developed and validated the Behavioral and Emotional Academic Procrastination Scale (BEPS), which covers all aspects of the definition of procrastination. The 6-item scale measuring self-reported academic procrastination was tested in three studies. Study 1 (N = 239) evaluated the psychometric qualities of the BEPS, indicating good item characteristics and internal consistency. Study 2 (N = 1,441) used confirmatory factor analysis and revealed two correlated factors: one covering the behavioral aspect and the other reflecting the emotional aspect. Measurement invariance was shown through longitudinal and multigroup confirmatory factor analyses. Study 3 (N = 234) provided evidence for the scale's convergent validity through correlations with established procrastination scales, self-efficacy, and neuroticism. The BEPS thus economically operationalizes all characteristics of academic procrastination and appears to be a reliable and valid self-report measure.

This field study combined self-determination theory and instructional quality research to complement existing approaches on how to facilitate students' perceived competence. Specifically, model comparisons were first conducted to establish a comprehensive model of structure, autonomy support, and instructional quality. Second, the retained model was used to predict students' perceived competence, applying an exploratory structural equation model-within-confirmatory factor analysis. The study included 277 10th grade students who completed 372 questionnaires in mathematics and biology. Results-wise, the comprehensive model met common evaluation, dimensionality, and reliability criteria. The general factor predicted students' perceived competence. Our inte-grative approach thus helps support students' perceived competence.

Considering the demanding higher education context, university students are at risk to experience burnout symptoms such as emotional exhaustion, cynicism, and reduced professional efficacy. Theoretical models (e.g., Job Demands-Resources Model) state that burnout symptoms develop over time, vary between individuals, and bear adverse consequences. To date, the temporal development of student burnout symptoms within semesters, inter-individual differences in their development, and the role of their development for academic outcomes like student dropout are understudied. To complement this limited research, we used date of a three-wave longitudinal study with N = 1435 undergraduate students over one semester. First, we modeled unconditional secondorder latent growth curves to examine the initial levels and trajectories of each burnout symptom (emotional exhaustion, cynicism, and reduced professional efficacy). We then modeled conditional second-order latent growth curves to examine whether initial levels and trajectories differed depending on students' sociodemographic characteristics (gender, age, study progress, and academic major) and associated with students' intentions to drop out from university. Results indicated a linear increase in student burnout symptoms over the semester. Sociodemographic differences existed in the initial levels of emotional exhaustion and reduced professional efficacy and the trajectories of each symptom. Generally, female, STEM, and higher- and lower- semester students were particularly affected by burnout symptoms. Further, higher initial levels and an increase in each symptom corresponded with higher dropout intentions. Summarizing, the results highlighted that student burnout symptoms increase as the semester progresses, seem more pronounced among certain student groups, and operate as strong predictors for dropout intentions.

Teacher education at universities often lacks practice although preservice teachers should be equipped with effective teaching methods. We conducted an intervention to convey and practice autonomy-supportive teaching behavior (ASTB) with 63 preservice teachers. The first control group (n = 76) did not receive any information on ASTB. A second control group (n = 54) had their regular seminar on ASTB without practicing what they had learned. Significant differences in the participants’ (Mage = 24.18 ± 3.26 years; Msemester = 7.61 ± 1.84; 63% female) knowledge, beliefs, and intentions were found. Participants of the intervention had higher theoretical and practical knowledge regarding ASTB and a higher level of perception that ASTB is easy to implement than a seminar without information on ASTB (first control group) and the regular seminar (second control group). That is, their knowledge acquisition and their belief about the ease of implementation were positively affected by the intervention in comparison to both control groups. Although no significant differences were found, preservice teachers in the intervention group also showed the highest level of agreement with the belief about the effectiveness of ASTB and the most pronounced intention to implement ASTB. The results of our study show that the developed intervention based on self-determination theory had a positive impact on preservice teachers’ knowledge and beliefs about ASTB as well as their intention to apply it in the future. Since teacher education at university often lacks practice, the development of such effective theory- and practice-based interventions for preservice teachers is especially important. The practical skills acquired in our study are of particular importance for one central challenge teachers face in their profession: the need to counteract the decreasing trend of student motivation during secondary schooling.

Although cross-sectional studies depict (negative) emotions as both antecedents and consequences of trait procrastination, longitudinal studies examining reciprocal relationships between procrastination and emotions are scant. Yet, investigating reciprocal relationships between procrastination and emotions within long-term frameworks can shed light on the mechanisms underlying these relationships. Additionally, the role of positive emotions concerning procrastination is largely unattended to in the procrastination–emotion research; albeit, this perspective can inform preventive and intervention measures against procrastination. In the present study, we explored reciprocal associations between trait academic procrastination on the one hand and trait-like learning-related anxiety and hope on the other hand over one semester. Overall, N = 789 students in German universities participated in a three-wave online panel study. Participants responded to questions on academic procrastination as well as learning-related anxiety and hope at the beginning (T1), middle (T2), and end (T3) of the lecture period of the semester in approximately 6-week measurement intervals. A latent cross-lagged panel model was used to test the hypotheses. After accounting for autoregressive effects, our results showed that academic procrastination at T1 positively predicted learning-related anxiety at T2. In contrast, academic procrastination at T1 negatively predicted learning-related hope at T2, which in turn negatively predicted academic procrastination at T3. Our results highlight positive emotions (e.g., hope) as also significant factors for procrastination and suggest them as possible “protective factors” against procrastination. Boosting positive emotions as part of interventions against procrastination could potentially help reduce the tendency to procrastinate.

Der Motivationsförderung kommt im Unterricht der Fächer Mathematik, Informatik, Naturwissenschaften und Technik (MINT) eine bedeutende Rolle zu. Aus diesem Grund wurde in Kooperation zwischen drei Teilmaßnahmen des vom BMBF geförderten Projekts BiProfessional eine digitale Lehrer*innenfortbildung zur Vermittlung von theoretischem Hintergrundwissen sowie praktischen Ansätzen zur Reflexion und Förderung von Motivation im MINT-Unterricht entwickelt. In dieser Fortbildung (MINT motivieren) sind die im vorliegenden Beitrag vorgestellten Materialien verankert, die zentrale Bausteine zur Eingrenzung von und zum Umgang mit Motivationsproblemen von Schüler*innen darstellen. Die Entwicklung der Materialien ist durch den Grundgedanken geleitet, dass effektive Motivationsförderung bedarfsorientiert erfolgen sollte. Durch die interdisziplinäre Verschränkung motivationspsychologischer, mathematikdidaktischer sowie biologiedidaktischer Perspektiven war es möglich, Herausforderungen bei der Motivationsförderung mit Hilfe der Konzeption praxistauglicher Materialien zu begegnen. Die hier vorgestellte Auswahl an Materialien zielt darauf ab, dass Lehrkräfte • die vielfältigen Ursachen von Motivationsproblemen ihrer Schüler*innen kennen und verstehen lernen, • darin unterstützt werden, konkrete Motivationsprobleme strukturiert zu reflektieren und mögliche Problemursachen einzugrenzen, sowie • ihre Fertigkeiten im Umgang mit Schüler*innen mithilfe von Feedback- und Verhaltenstechniken weiterentwickeln können, um positive Veränderungen hinsichtlich der Motivation ihrer Schüler*innen zu bewirken. Diesem Ansatz folgend wird zunächst ein Reflexionsleitfaden für spezifische Motivationsprobleme für Lehrkräfte vorgestellt. Anschließend werden zwei Übungen aus dem Fortbildungsmodul „Gut gemacht – Feedback und Erwartungseffekte“ thematisiert. Während sich die erste Übung der Erarbeitung und Anwendung von Charakteristika kontrollierenden und informierenden Feedbacks widmet, wird in der zweiten Übung das Geben von Feedback in prototypischen Erfolgs- und Misserfolgssituationen aus eigenem und fremdem Unterricht reflektiert.

IntroductionRecent research has emphasized that achievement motivation is context-sensitive and varies within individual students. Ubiquitous temporal landmarks such as exams or deadlines are evident contextual factors that could systematically explain variation in motivation. Indeed, research has consistently found that university students increase their study efforts as exams come closer in time, indicating increasing study motivation. However, changes in study motivation for a specific exam as it comes closer have rarely been investigated. Instead, research on developmental changes in expectancy and value beliefs has consistently founds that achievement motivation declines over a semester. Surprisingly, declining motivation thus apparently coincides with increasing study efforts for end-of-semester exams.MethodsThe present research investigates this apparent contradiction by assessing how exam-specific motivation and study behavior change under equal methodological conditions as an exam draws closer. Using parallel growth curve models, we examine changes in expectancy-value beliefs, performance approach and avoidance motivation and study behavior as well as motivational want- and should-conflicts among 96 students over eight weekly measurement points.Results and discussionResults show that students study more for their exam as it comes closer and increase their use of surface learning strategies more rapidly than their use of deep learning strategies. However, even exam-specific expectancy and attainment value beliefs decline while performance-avoidance motivation increases over time, indicating that students increasingly study out of fear to fail as exams come closer. Consistent with these findings, students’ experience of should conflicts decreases while their want conflicts increase over time. We discuss several possible mechanisms underlying our findings in addition to potential theoretical consequences and suggest future research opportunities to better understand students’ changes in situative motivation and study behavior in the context of temporal landmarks.

In achievement motive theory, need for achievement is conceptualized as an explanatory variable that triggers certain experiences and behaviors spontaneously. Experience sampling should therefore be an ideal approach for capturing such motive-specific affective contingencies. However, given that not all students seem to be aware of their underlying motives, the link between self-reported need for achievement and daily experiences may depend on their mindfulness level. In a sample of university students (N = 107), self-reported fear of failure predicted momentary negative activation across activity contexts in everyday life. In addition, hope of success predicted positive activation in more mindful students and in nonroutine situations (e.g., studying, working, or leisure time). Together, these findings are a first step toward illuminating the phenomenological and excitatory nature of need for achievement in students' everyday lives and illustrate the necessity of noticing motive-specific cues in order to integrate them into the explicit motivational self-concept.

In this paper, we investigate the effects of context stability on automaticity and goal attainment in intentional habit building. We used hierarchical growth curve modeling and multilevel mediation to test our hypotheses on two datasets. In Study 1, N = 95 university students ( N = 2,482 habit repetitions) built new study habits over a period of 6 weeks with manipulated context stability. One group was instructed to constantly vary the context of their habit repetitions by changing rooms and times and the other group was instructed to keep the context of habit performance stable. In Study 2, N = 308 habits ( N = 2,368 habit repetitions) from N = 218 users of a published habit building app were analyzed without manipulating but measuring context stability. We found the same pattern in both datasets: Context stability predicted more automaticity and higher habit repetition goal attainment. We also found that the effect of context stability on habit repetition goal attainment was partially mediated by automaticity in both datasets. These results show that context does not only act as a trigger for habit instigation but also has an ongoing effect on habit execution.