Mental training improves athletic performance however, less is known about when athletes are fatigued. PURPOSE: To observe the physiological changes that occur in fatigued individuals after receiving mental strength training. METHODS: Twenty participants completed the study (9 control (CON); 11 mental strength (MS)). To induce fatigue, the participants ran for 90 minutes at an easy/moderate pace around a track. Following 90 minutes, the subjects ran to the laboratory and were fitted with the VO2 mask where they completed a 1.5-mile time trial (TT) on the treadmill. This procedure was performed twice, separated by two weeks, during which the MS group watched one of three five-minute mental training videos each day during the two weeks that taught strategies for controlling stress (both internal and external), feelings of anxiousness, and panic in stressful situations. Self-reported ratings of perceived exertion (RPE) and leg-specific pain/fatigue, heart rate, oxygen consumption, overall time for the time trial, distance covered on the track were recorded. RESULTS: Participants in the MS group reported lower values of RPE (-0.735 ± 1.73), leg-specific fatigue (-6.87 ± 11.7) and pain (-3.27 ± 12.6), and objectively had a lower heart rate (-7.03 ± 7.3 bpm) during the second 90-minute track run as opposed to the first test while running the same exact pace that they ran the first test while CON was unchanged. The MS group improved in the 1.5 Mile TT by 37 seconds (10.79 ± 2.24 vs 10.17 ± 2.15 min) while having a lower heart rate (-0.78 ± 3.86 bpm), higher VO2 values (0.145 ± .15 L/min), and decreased rate of perceived exertion (1.4 ± 1.70). The control group improved by 6.5 seconds while having similar ratings on all measures as the first test. CONCLUSIONS: These results support that mental training increases endurance performance potentially by decreasing subjective ratings of perceived exertion and through decreases in parasympathetic nervous system activity as evidenced by the decreased heart rate while running at faster speeds.

Mental training (MT) can increase endurance performance. The purpose of this study was to examine the minimum dose of mental training needed to increase performance and elucidate the physiological mechanisms underlying this improvement. In a randomized between groups pre-test–post-test design, 33 participants visited the lab on 6 separate days. A VO2peak with ventilatory threshold (VT) was performed on day 1. The subsequent visits consisted of time trials to exhaustion (TTE) performed at 10

At the youth level, there is an ongoing debate between two paradigms concerning the development of athletic performance: early sport specialization vs. diversification. Early sport specialization (i.e., intense training in one specific sport) can lead to high-level performance, especially for sports that have a lower age at peak performance (e.g., women's gymnastics); however, there are many drawbacks including an increased risk for injury and burnout. Consequently, there has been a push for diversification, wherein young athletes participate in several sports early on and gradually specialize overtime. This process ensures that children develop many fundamental motor skills that become the building blocks for more specialized sport skills. One model that has adopted this idea is the Long-Term Athlete Development (LTAD) model. The purpose of this article is to provide an overview of the LTAD model and explain how physical education teachers and youth sport coaches can implement the model into their curriculum and programs.

Sport managers are required to handle times of uncertainty by managing their employees effectively and working to ensure that the objectives of the organization can be maintained. This case follows the fictional Harrison Hornets AA baseball team through the COVID-19 pandemic and how their chief executive officer/chief operating officer, Rachel Chambers, manages the front office employees. The employer/employee interactions in this case demonstrate the challenges faced by managers attempting to balance things they can and cannot control. In working through the case, students become aware of consequences stemming from specific choices, the struggles managers face when dealing with varying personalities, and issues of inequality that arise when working with diverse stakeholders. The broadness of the narrative provides instructor latitude on implementation for a variety of courses and modes of student participation. The teaching notes provide multiple options to expand beyond the case itself, including research and information literacy tasks that can develop student skills.

Abstract Resilient qualities, which derive from protective factors, enable an individual to balance exposure to vulnerabilities in military service and throughout life. Protective factors arise from within an individual, from social factors, and from an individual's environment. Research on social factors, such as strong leadership and peer relationships, continues to emerge and significantly relate to resilience. Of specific interest to organisations is how perceptions of leadership contribute to resilience as an individual and social protective factor. Knowing more about how soldiers perceive themselves on authentic leadership and resilience would better help researchers and practitioners understand the contribution of leadership on perceived resilience. The current study examined the perception of authentic leadership in self and first-line leaders with resilience in a population of 179 soldiers (N = 179; M = 26.86 years, SD = 6.42). The results noted a significant correlation between the perception of authentic leadership in oneself and resilience (r = 0.506, p < 0.001). A subsequent analysis examining the perception of authentic leadership in one's first-line leader and subordinate resilience was also significant (r = 0.394, p < 0.001), supporting previous findings. These results demonstrate that perceptions of leadership matter as an individual and social factor in military personnel.

Short-term grit and resilience training, as well as internal self-talk training have increased physical performance. However, little is known about longer mental training. PURPOSE: Perform 21 days of mental training to observe how performance and physiological variables change. METHODS: Participants were 33 college-aged (16 mental strength (MS), 17 control (CON)) individuals (20.7 +/- 1.2yrs, weight 72.3 ± 9.3kg, height 1.77 ± .09m, VO2peak 47.9 ± 9.3mL/kg/min). A VO2peak was performed on a cycle ergometer on day one. Subsequent visits consisted of time trials to exhaustion (TTE) performed 10% above ventilatory threshold. MS groups watched one of four 10-minute videos daily for 21 days. VO2, ventilation (VE), respiratory rate (RR), tidal volume (TV), heart rate (HR), RPE, and VAS scores (0-100) for pain and fatigue were recorded during pre- and post-time trials. Participants took GRIT-S and CD-Risc psychological surveys before pre- and post-TTE. RM-ANOVA were done to compare group, time, and trial differences as a percentage of total time as well as absolute times (0-3 minutes). RESULTS: TTE significantly increased for MS (8.8 ± 13.2%) and decreased for CON (-6.6 ± 14.6%, p < 0.05). VO2, VE, RPE, fatigue, and pain as a percentage of total time were unchanged. HR was significantly higher after 21 days of MS compared to CON at 40, 60, 80, and 100% of TTE (p < 0.05). When compared at absolute times, there were significant decreases in VO2 at minute 3 (p < 0.05) and VE at minute 2 and 2.5 (p < 0.05). RR was lower following MS (p < 0.05) though there was no difference in TV. There was a trial x group interaction in RPE (F(1,25) = 4.823, p < 0.05) with MS experiencing a decrease in RPE after training. CONCLUSION: MS training for three weeks allowed participants to cycle longer before exhaustion. HR increased as a percentage of TT time post-MS training, perhaps due to increased duration post-TTE leading to measuring HR at later absolute times. By measuring HR later, metabolites would be expected to be higher, thus increasing HR. Decreases in VE and RR may be due to one of the mental strategies that involved instruction to reduce stress and anxiety by taking deeper and slower breaths, which may contribute to a reduced perception of effort. Finally, MS training reduced O2 consumption, contributing to a decreased RPE and increased TTE duration.

The International Society of Sport Psychology (ISSP) aims to be the leading international and inclusive organisation focused on the development of sport psychology in all regions and cultural areas of the world. In 2019 with the advent of the ISSP - Registry, a renewed need for an up-to-date code of ethics for practitioners that reflected the mission of the registry and supported the international community of sport psychology practitioners became apparent. As such, a group of 24 scholars and practitioners from North and South America, Europe, Asia, and Oceania collaboratively worked on the development of this code of ethics. Each of the 22 contributors was asked to develop a principle or a standard that could be embraced and implemented by practitioners in their country and wider geographical area of work, within the reasonable limits imposed by cultural, legal, and professional differences. Once all the contributions were received, the two first authors of the Code reviewed, modified, completed, re-organized, standardised, compiled, and finalised the final version. The edited final copy was then submitted for a cultural review to a small sub-group of contributors located in different geographical areas around the world. Once finalised, the code was presented to the ISSP Managing Council, for approval. The resulting Code of Ethics aims to embody the mission and the value of the ISSP and its Registry.

Mental strength training (MS) and mindfulness (MD) training can increase performance. This study tested the hypothesis that one week of MS or MD would increase performance as well as begin to elucidate the physiological underpinnings that allow for increased performance. In a randomized between groups pre-test – post-test design, 42 participants visited the lab on 4 separate days. A VO2peak with ventilatory threshold (VT) was performed on day 1. The subsequent visits consisted of time trials to exhaustion (TTE) performed at 10% above VT. Between visit 3 and 4, MS (n=16) and MD (n=13) groups watched a video or listened to an audio recording for 10-15 minutes each day for one week while the control group (CON) (n=13) did no training. Heart rate (HR), rate of perceived exertion (RPE), VAS scores for pain and fatigue, and EMG were recorded during the time trials. Peripheral fatigue was assessed via changes in pre- vs. post-exercise quadriceps force in response to supramaximal magnetic femoral nerve stimulation (ΔQtw.pot). CD-Risc, GRIT-S, and the 5-factor mindfulness surveys were also completed before study day 3 and 4. TTE increased significantly in the MS (8.7±13.6%) and MD (4.6±5.5%) groups while CON did not significantly change (-4.9±11.6%). There were no changes in peak HR or RPE. Peak fatigue was increased following MS and peak fatigue and pain were increased following MD. EMG was significantly decreased following MS. One week of mental training, whether MS which included grit and resilience training or for MD, has the ability to improve TTE performance. However, current psychological surveys are not sensitive enough to detect changes in mental performance, perhaps because they are not sport/exercise specific. Further, MS may improve performance by reducing EMG input and shifting to a more external focus, allowing a decreased activation of muscle and subsequent reduced fatigue rate.

Resilience enables an individual to experience and overcome stressors. Research in sport has been retrospective on this important topic. The purpose of this study was to investigate hypothesized resilient responses by assessing resilient characteristics, inducing stress, and examine cortisol, affect, and performance.116 male and female athletes completed the Connor-Davidson Resilience Scale 10-item (CD-RISC-10; Gucciardi, et al., 2011) to screen athletes as high or low in resilience. All participants gave baseline, prefailure, and postfailure measures of affect and cortisol and performance was assessed pre and post failure. Repeated measures ANOVAs examined participants' responses from baseline to induced stress, and induced stress to post-failure. A significant group by time interaction for negative affect from baseline to induced stress occurred. No other significant interactions emerged. These results require further research to understand the complexity of individual responses to stressors and adversity.

Internal self-talk has been shown to improve performance and reduce effort, but less is known about how short-term mental strength (MS) and mindfulness (MD) training affect performance and underlying physiological variables. PURPOSE: To determine how MS (grit, resilience) or MD training affect cycling time trial to exhaustion and to determine the physiological mechanisms underlying these changes. METHODS: 35 college-aged participants visited the lab on 4 separate days. A VO2max with ventilatory threshold (VT) was performed on day 1. The subsequent visits consisted of time trials to exhaustion (TTE) performed at 10% above VT. Between visit 3 and 4, MS (13 participants) and MD (10 participants) groups watched a video or listened to an audio recording for 15 minutes each day for one week while the control group (C) (12 participants) did no training. Heart rate (HR), rate of perceived exertion (RPE), VAS scores for pain and fatigue, and EMG were recorded during the time trials. CD-Risc, GRIT-S, and the 5-factor mindfulness surveys were also completed before study day 3 and 4. A RM-ANOVA was done to compare group and time differences. RESULTS: TTE was significantly increased in MS (8.6±13.6%, p<0.05) and MD (4.3±5.8%, p<0.05) compared to C (-4.9±11.6%). There were no changes between MS or MD and C for differences between trial 1 and trial 2 for maximum HR, average HR, maximum RPE, average RPE, or VAS scores for pain or fatigue (p>0.05). One week of MS or MD training also did not affect the GRIT-S, CD-Risc, or 5-factor mindfulness survey (p>0.05). There was a significant decrease in EMG for MS as compared to both MD (p<0.05) and C (p<0.01), but MD EMG did not change as compared to C (p>0.05). Conclusions: One week of mental training, whether MS which included grit and resilience training or for MD, has the ability to improve TTE performance. However, current psychological surveys are not sensitive enough to detect changes in mental performance, perhaps because they are not sport/exercise specific. Further, MS may improve performance by reducing EMG input and shifting to a more external focus, allowing a decreased activation of muscle and subsequent reduced fatigue rate.

The U.S. Army requires resilient soldiers who can positively adapt following an adversity. Leadership styles grounded in positive psychology can increase psychological resilience in subordinates. This study aimed to determine whether a relation exists between the perception of authentic leadership and subordinate resilience in U.S. Army–enlisted soldiers. A descriptive correlational design using survey instrumentation was the methodology for data collection and analysis. Participants (N = 132) were assessed for resilience using the Connor Davidson Resilience Scale. The perception of supervisor authentic leadership was assessed using the Authentic Leadership Questionnaire. Findings indicate a positive relation between the perception of authentic leadership and subordinate resilience. Data analysis indicated no statistically significant difference between resilience level and age, military rank, and time in military service. This empirical evidence of a positive correlation between the perception of authentic leadership and subordinate resilience suggests that the U.S. Army can leverage authentic leadership to improve the psychological resilience of soldiers and minimize adversity-related psychopathology.

Resilience, or the ability to bounce back and subsequently flourish following adversity, is an area of research rapidly gaining attention in sport psychology. While recent resilience research in sport has investigated factors involved in the process of exhibiting individual and team resilience, practitioner-focused literature on "how to" utilize resilience research when consulting with athletes has yet to be explicated. The purpose of this article is to describe sport psychology consultant experiences developing resilience with elite athletes using theory. Based on the framework and case studies, suggestions are provided for facilitating resilience in athletes.

The historic Boston Marathon was struck by tragedy in 2013 when two bombs exploded near the finish line during the race. This tragedy provided the opportunity to study resilience in marathon runners, whose experience overcoming minor adversities may help them respond resiliently to trauma (Dyer & Crouch, 1988). The purpose of this study was to employ qualitative methods to examine the role of resilience in helping runners overcome their experience at the 2013 Boston Marathon. The researchers used Galli and Vealey’s (2008) Conceptual Model of Sport Resilience as a guide. Sixteen 2013 Boston Marathon runners were interviewed. Participants reported experiencing a confusing, unpleasant race day, followed by months of mixed emotions and coping strategies, which were mediated by personal resources and ultimately led to positive outcomes including increased motivation, strength, new perspectives, and a greater sense of closeness in the running community.

Objective: This study replicates and extends the work of Gucciardi, Jackson, Coulter, and Mallett (2011) in relation to the validity of the Connor-Davidson Resilience Scale (CD-RISC; Connor & Davidson, 2003) in sport. Three primary aims were explored: 1) Examine the factor structure and fit of three versions of the CD-RISC: the original 25-item CD-RISC, both as a 25-item five factor scale and as a 25-item unidimensional scale, and the 10-item CD-RISC-10; 2) examine gender invariance of the best fitting version of the CD-RISC; and 3) examine the validity of the best fitting CD-RISC by relating it to affect and performance anxiety in a sample of competitive American distance runners (N = 409).Design: Cross-sectional.Methods: Multiple self-report questionnaires were delivered through an online medium.Results: Using confirmatory factor and item level analyses, the CD-RISC-10-item scale was psychometrically superior to the unidimensional 25-item and the five factor 25-item CD-RISC versions. The CD-RISC-10-item exhibited measurement invariance for gender, with significant configural, strong, and weak analyses. Using structure equation modeling, the CD-RISC-10-item scale moderately and positively correlated with positive affect and was inversely related to negative affect and performance anxiety, establishing convergent and divergent validity.Conclusion: The findings offer some initial psychometric evidence for the use of the CD-RISC-10 in sport performers. (C) 2015 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.

We argue that not only do attitude, perceived behavior controls, and social norms influence intention to adopt technology, but inspiration, memory, and their interaction (inspirational memory) do as well. The current study aimed to determine whether inspiration can be manipulated and, if so, how increased inspiration affects both memory and the situational motivation of end users to accept new technology. The present paper hypothesizes that inspiration positively influences intention to use technology. We also postulate that memory, as measured by decreased time to complete a test script after being exposed to an inspirational stimulus, positively influences intention to use technology. Further, we contend that memory, as measured by decreased number of errors in the completed script after being exposed to an inspirational stimulus, positively influences intention to use technology. Finally we show that the interaction of memory and inspiration positively influences intention to use technology. The proposed study hypotheses were examined via structural equation modeling (SEM) analyses of data collected from 338 users. The rest of the paper will present a comprehensive conceptual model and then build it piece by piece, presenting hypotheses along the way.

Parts backorder reduction has become increasingly important in supply chain management. When it is difficult or time consuming to acquire parts, the operational availability of a system is reduced. This study describes a technique that helps planners proactively identify potential problem spare parts to better manage spare parts acquisition in military weapon systems. The paper reports on the results of fuzzy induced linguistic ordered weighted averaging for group decision support evaluation of backorder risk triggers to ensure that equipment is available and fully operational when needed. Risk factors were identified, the impact importance and probability metric performance ratings were determined via induced linguistic ordered weighted averaging, and a risk mitigation strategy was used to identify and predict supply chain backorder risk triggers (SCBORT). L-Project is an illustrative example that utilizes Petri nets and Pareto charts to present the evaluation hierarchy of supply chain risk. Cluster analysis is utilized to determine that there are five triggers of engineering, obsolescence, demand, NSN unique sustainment, and cataloging in light of the five SCBORT probability performance metric dimensions of quality, cost, lead time, service level, and information availability. There are also four aggregated SCBORT impact clusters of market sensitiveness, process integration, information drivers, and flexibility. Supply chain risk is presented as a probability/impact matrix.

The ability to respond positively to setbacks, obstacles, and failures is essential for any successful athlete. Although resilience has been studied in general psychology for several decades, it is only recently that researchers and practitioners have begun to explore the construct within the sport context. The purpose of this article is to review the current state of resilience scholarship in sport, and to offer guidelines for future research and interventions in this area. Studies of resilience in sport to date have either used experimental designs to investigate resilience to performance failure, or qualitative interview designs to understand the thoughts and beliefs of athletes who have successfully overcome adversity. Researchers who wish to study sport resilience in the future should think carefully about how they operationalise the construct. Furthermore, knowledge will be enhanced by the development of a sport-specific resilience measure and the use of more sophisticated qualitative approaches and advanced statistical modelling procedures. Sport practitioners can learn from resilience-building programmes developed in other settings as they, craft evidence-based interventions to enhance resilience in athletes.