An initial bout of eccentric exercise (EE) is known to protect against exercise-induced muscle damage (EIMD) following the performance of a subsequent bout of similar volume and intensity, a phenomenon known as the repeated bout effect (RBE). We examined whether aspects of motor unit (MU) behavior and reticulospinal tract (RST) drive are neural components of this protective effect. Twenty-three participants (6 females; age 26 ± 5 yr) performed two bouts of EE (10 repetitions × 10 sets) with the dorsiflexors separated by 3 wk. Maximal voluntary isometric torque (MVIC), muscle soreness (DOMS), MU behavior (quantified from MUs identified via high-density electromyography decomposition), and RST drive (visual-auditory vs. visual-startle reaction time) were recorded at baseline, 24, 48, and 72 h postexercise. Symptoms of EIMD were elevated following bout 1; MVIC was reduced, and perceived soreness was increased. Despite comparable work performed (∼1,300 J; P = 0.721), MVIC (P < 0.001) and soreness (P < 0.001) recovered quicker following bout 2. The attenuated symptoms of EIMD were coupled with reduced variability in MU discharge rate (P = 0.001) and torque (P < 0.001). MU adjustments were not accompanied by any change in RST drive (-8 ms; P = 0.634). Lower MU discharge variability and an attenuated increase in firing rate in bout 2 support a neural contribution to the RBE. The present study cannot infer whether such adaptations actively protect against muscle damage or merely reflect the reduced mechanical and nociceptive disturbance. Nonetheless, we confirm that MU adjustments are involved in the RBE phenomenon.NEW & NOTEWORTHY Unfamiliar eccentric exercise causes muscle damage, but repeating the same exercise later substantially reduces symptoms-an adaptive phenomenon known as the repeated bout effect (RBE). We investigated the neural contributions to this response. We observed lower motor unit discharge variability and smaller increases in firing rate after the repeated bout. These findings provide evidence that motor unit-level neural adjustments are a critical component of the RBE, offering a new perspective on this protective adaptation.

The known fluctuations in ovarian hormone concentrations across the eumenorrheic menstrual cycle contribute to modulations in cortical excitability and inhibition. However, how such changes affect spike-timing-dependent plasticity (STDP) has not been systematically studied. This research aimed to determine the effect of the menstrual cycle on corticospinal excitability and STDP. Twelve eumenorrheic female participants (age: 25 ± 5 yr) visited the lab in three menstrual cycle phases: early follicular (EF), late follicular (LF), and mid-luteal (ML). Visits comprised of corticospinal excitability [motor evoked potential (MEP)/Mmax], short-intracortical inhibition (SICI), and intracortical facilitation (ICF) measures, recorded in the resting first dorsal interosseous. Followed by a paired associative stimulation (PAS) protocol, utilizing ulnar nerve and transcranial magnetic stimulation (25-ms interstimulus interval) to elicit neuroplasticity. To assess the time course of STDP, measurements were repeated at 15 and 30-min post PAS. Corticospinal excitability (MEP/Mmax) was greater in the LF phase (P ≤ 0.001) compared with EF and ML, with no phase effects observed for SICI or ICF (P ≥ 0.170). PAS elicited an increase in MEP/Mmax across all phases at 15-min (112 ± 5, 116 ± 5, and 114 ± 7% baseline, P ≤ 0.037), whereas at 30 min only ML was facilitated (126 ± 5% baseline, P = 0.044). The present data demonstrate facilitatory STDP can be induced with PAS across the tested menstrual cycle phases, but responses are prolonged and potentiated in the ML phase. In addition, increased corticospinal excitability in the LF phase is likely due to intrinsic changes within the descending tract, as no changes in intracortical neurotransmission were observed.NEW & NOTEWORTHY Does the menstrual cycle modulate spike-timing-dependent plasticity? In the present study, a facilitatory paired associative stimulation protocol was used to probe Hebbian plasticity in three hormonally distinct menstrual cycle phases. Facilitation was induced in all menstrual cycle phases, but this effect lasted longer and was of greater magnitude in the luteal phase when estrogens and progesterone were both elevated. This provides insights into the potential mechanisms by which these hormones influence neuroplasticity in females.

Fatiguing contractions performed with limited oxygen supply develop a higher neuromuscular fatigue, perceived effort, and muscle pain that reduce exercise capacity. Despite these consistent observations, there is limited information about motor unit (MU) behavior in response to limited oxygen supply. Fourteen healthy participants (means ± SD age, 29 ± 5 yr; height, 175 ± 7 cm; mass, 75 ± 11.1 kg) were recruited. Neuromuscular function, perceived effort, muscle pain, and MU behavior were monitored during isometric contractions of the dominant ankle dorsiflexors at 60% of maximal voluntary contraction (MVC), with blood flow restriction (BFR) and without (Control). High-density surface electromyography was used to investigate MU behavior of the tibialis anterior muscle. MU were tracked across contractions and classified as relatively lower-threshold (≤30% MVC) and higher-threshold (> 30% MVC). During exercise with BFR, heart rate, perceived effort, and muscle pain were higher (P < 0.001). BFR induced greater neuromuscular fatigue, reduced maximal muscle activation, and muscle contractile function (P < 0.001). The discharge rate of lower-threshold MU decreased (P < 0.001), whereas it increased for higher-threshold MU (P ≤ 0.003). Both MU types exhibited reduced recruitment and derecruitment thresholds with BFR (P < 0.001). These results show disparate adjustment between lower- and higher-threshold MU during exercise with limited oxygen supply. Higher discharge rate of relatively higher-threshold MU might be required to compensate for the lower discharge rate of relatively lower-threshold MU. This suggests that the nervous system adopts an acute neural strategy to maintain force production during contractions with limited oxygen supply.NEW & NOTEWORTHY The behavior of motor units during high-intensity fatiguing contractions with limited oxygen supply is poorly investigated. Here, we show that during fatiguing exercise with blood flow restriction, motor units are recruited at lower force levels with inhibition of relatively lower-threshold motor units and increased activity of relatively higher-threshold motor units. These changes in motor unit behavior might represent an acute neural adaptation to produce force during high-intensity contractions with limited oxygen supply.

This study investigated neuromuscular fatigue and perceived fatigability across different high-intensity endurance running protocols. Twelve males (mean ± SD; V ˙ O 2 max : 52.2 ± 6.9 mL/kg/min) ran ∼8.0 km: (i) at the velocity associated to the respiratory compensation point (vRCP; 5 × 8 min bouts ‒ RUN100%RCP); (ii) at 30% above vRCP (10 × 3 min bouts ‒ RUN130%RCP); and (iii) at 50% above vRCP (20 × 80 s bouts ‒ RUN150%RCP). Before and for 6 h post-exercise, voluntary and evoked contractions of knee-extensors were assessed, alongside tiredness, leg pain, and perceived recovery. Following all protocols, voluntary activation remained depressed for up to 4 h post-exercise, while voluntary peak force was reduced for at least 6 h (p < 0.05). Other neuromuscular function markers reduced (p < 0.05) according to the protocol. No time × protocol interaction was observed for any neuromuscular function marker (p > 0.05). Aggregate data (protocol effect, p < 0.05) evidenced greater reduction in neural drive to vastus lateralis (RMSVL/Mwamp) after RUN100%RCP (-20%) compared to RUN130%RCP (-3%) and RUN150%RCP (-7%); and greater reduction in late rate of force development (RFD; 100-200 ms) and contractile function (Qtwpot) after RUN150%RCP (-18% and -8%, respectively) than RUN100%RCP (-8% and -2%, respectively). Leg pain and tiredness remained elevated (p < 0.05) for at least 6 h following all protocols. Leg pain and tiredness were greater for up to 4 h and for at least 6 h, respectively, after RUN150%RCP than RUN100%RCP (time × protocol interaction; p < 0.05). The choice of exercise protocol influences the extent of reduction in vastus lateralis neural drive, impairments in knee-extensors contractile function, and perceived fatigability for hours following a high-intensity endurance running.

Purpose The impact of caffeine habituation on acute responses to different doses of caffeinated coffee has received minimal attention. This study aimed to investigate the effects of different doses of coffee on physical and cognitive performance in men and women with different levels of daily caffeine consumption. Methods Sixty-nine (35 women) athletes participated in this study, attending 4 experimental visits in a double-blind, randomized, crossover fashion: decaffeinated coffee (PLA), 1.5 mg/kg (LCOF), 3 mg/kg (MCOF) and 6 mg/kg of caffeine (HCOF) from coffee ingestion. Sixty min after coffee consumption, participants performed squat and bench press exercises (1 repetition maximum, 1RM), 60% of 1RM muscular endurance (ME), maximal sprinting, and cognitive performance (CP) was assessed. Participants were allocated into low (LGROUP), moderate (MGROUP), and high (HGROUP) caffeine consumption groups. Results Caffeine ingestion did not improve 1RM squat (p = 0.62) or bench press (p = 0.74), and ME of bench press (p = 0.91). Squat ME was increased with MCOF and HCOF in LGROUP and MGROUP, both in men and women. However, in HGROUP, enhancement was only seen with HCOF (p = 0.01). Sprint performance was enhanced with only HCOF in all consumption groups and sexes (p = 0.01). CP was significantly higher with HCOF (p = 0.01) compared to PLA, LCOF, and MCOF regardless of habituation level and sex. RPE and HR values did not change between trials, sexes, and consumption groups (p > 0.05). Conclusion These results suggest that 3 and 6 mg/kg of caffeine increases physical or cognitive performance, but the required dose for muscular endurance enhancement can be related to the habituation level of participants. Trial registration The study was registered on clinicaltrials.gov with ID of NCT07474753 on March 11, 2026.

Aging is associated with declines in physical and cognitive capacities, negatively affecting functional independence and quality of life. While physical exercise is recommended for healthy aging, uncertainty remains regarding the optimal training intensity for simultaneously supporting physical and cognitive outcomes. This study evaluated the effects of medium-intensity training (MIT) on functional independence and cognitive function in older adults. A six-month assessor-blinded randomized controlled trial was conducted with 72 community-dwelling older adults aged 60-70 years. Participants were randomly assigned using a computer-generated sequence to either the MIT group (n = 36) or control group (n = 36). The MIT program was performed three times per week at moderate intensity, prescribed using individualized heart-rate reserve targets and supported by perceived exertion monitoring. Functional independence and cognitive function were measured using the Katz Index of Independence in Activities of Daily Living (ADL) and Mini-Mental State Examination (MMSE), respectively. Data were analyzed using paired and independent t-tests for within- and between-group comparisons, and two-way repeated measures ANOVA to evaluate Time × Group interaction effects. Assumptions of normality were verified (Shapiro-Wilk test, p > 0.05). Significance was set at p < 0.05, with effect sizes interpreted cautiously in light of outcome variability and the pre-post randomized design. Baseline characteristics did not differ meaningfully between groups. Following MIT, the exercise group significantly improved in functional independence (Katz Index: 4.31 ± 0.46 to 5.33 ± 0.77; p = 0.006) and cognitive function (MMSE: 18.77 ± 2.64 to 22.25 ± 4.38; p = 0.001). The control group showed no significant changes in Katz Index (4.53 ± 0.50 to 4.24 ± 0.82; p = 0.731) or MMSE (18.31 ± 2.01 to 19.07 ± 0.81; p = 0.434). Two-way repeated measures ANOVA confirmed significant Time × Group interactions for both outcomes, suggesting greater improvements in the MIT group than in the control group. A six-month medium-intensity training program was associated with improvements in functional independence and cognitive function among community-dwelling older adults. These findings support MIT as a feasible, low-cost exercise approach for community-based healthy aging programs. Future studies with larger samples, objective intensity monitoring, systematic adherence tracking, adverse-event reporting, and long-term follow-up are warranted.Trial registration: This trial was retrospectively registered in the Thai Clinical Trials Registry (TCTR20250613003) on 13 June 2025.

This study investigated the effect of the menstrual cycle and combined oral contraceptive pill (mOCP) on countermovement jump (CMJ) height, perceived recovery, and readiness to train following a strength-based exercise session. Forty-two recreationally active women, 21 naturally menstruating and 21 mOCP users, performed a strength-based session at three phases across their respective cycle. Preexercise, immediately postexercise, and at 24, 48, and 72 hr postexercise, physical (CMJ) and perceptual (i.e., perceived recovery and readiness to train) measures were recorded. Participants reported their perceived symptoms daily to quantify symptom frequency and severity before and after exercise. Preexercise CMJ height was lower in both groups in Testing phase 1 compared with other phases (p <= .017). A decline in CMJ height postexercise persisted for 48 hr (p < .001), before recovering at 72 hr, with no difference across phases or between groups. Naturally menstruating women reported longer perceived recovery in Testing phase 1 (72 hr), compared with other phases (48 hr, p <= .001), whereas mOCP users perceived full recovery at 72 hr across all phases (p <= .004). Symptom frequency and severity were perceived to be greater in both groups in Testing phase 1 compared with other phases (p <= .001), although symptoms reduced immediately postexercise irrespective of phase and group (p < .001). These findings suggest that CMJ performance and perceived recovery are influenced by the menstrual cycle and mOCP use, likely due to symptoms and perceived readiness, but physical recovery appears unaffected.

Human movement involves a dynamic interplay of isometric, concentric, and eccentric muscle actions. There is a need to understand the contribution of the reticulospinal tract (RST) to human movement control during different muscle actions. This research aimed to determine the excitability of the RST during isometric, concentric, and eccentric muscle actions. Fourteen neurologically intact participants (age: 26 ± 7 years; sex: 3 female, 11 male; stature: 176 ± 8 cm; mass: 78.5 ± 10.9 kg) performed isometric, concentric, and eccentric muscle actions with the right biceps brachii . Participants performed a submaximal contraction at 25% of their isometric maximum voluntary contraction (MVC) during all muscle actions. Neurophysiological electrical stimulations to indirectly measure RST excitability consisted of conditioned (startling auditory stimulus of ≥ 110 dB) and unconditioned (no auditory stimulus) cervicomedullary motor evoked potentials (CMEPs). Larger conditioned CMEP responses compared with unconditioned CMEPs were observed for all muscle actions ( p  = 0.008). However, no differences in RST excitability, inferred from the difference between conditioned and unconditioned CMEP responses, were observed across the three muscle actions ( p  = 0.319). These results suggest that across isometric, concentric, and eccentric muscle actions, there are no differences in RST excitability while performing a submaximal contraction at 25% of their isometric MVC. It could therefore be inferred from this that RST input to motoneurons is not different between isometric, concentric, and eccentric muscle actions of the biceps brachii at a relatively low fixed absolute contraction intensity.

This study investigated whether a lower volume of once-weekly resistance training (RT) could elicit meaningful improvements in quality of life (QoL), functional capacity and strength in untrained older adults, aiming to determine if reduced training volume could yield meaningful adaptations. The study included 31 community-dwelling older adults (mean age 66.7 ± 4.9 years; 55 % female) with a mean body mass index (BMI) of 27.2 kg/m². Participants were randomised into four groups to perform a leg press exercise using either maximal-intent (MI; defined as the purposeful intention to move as fast as possible regardless of resistance) or controlled-tempo (CT) RT across two volumes (3 ×5 or 5 ×5, sets × repetitions) at 60 % one-repetition maximum (1RM) once weekly for six weeks. Body mass, BMI, QoL (assessed by the SF-36) were assessed, and a follow-up QoL survey conducted three months post-intervention. Functional capacity was evaluated using balance, six-minute walk (6MWT), timed-up-and-go (TUG), and 30-second sit-to-stand (30sSTS) tests. Strength was measured via leg press 1RM, knee extension maximum voluntary isometric contractions (MVIC), and strength-to-mass ratio. All assessments were conducted at baseline, mid-intervention (week 3) and post-intervention (week 6) to compare the effectiveness of both shorter (3-week) and full-length (6-week) training periods. Low-dose RT significantly enhanced QoL, functional capacity, and strength (p < 0.05) across all groups within the first three weeks. Both CT and MI modalities led to significant strength improvements (p < 0.001), with no statistically significant difference between modalities (p > 0.05). Despite the reduced volume, the 3 × 5 protocol achieved comparable outcomes to 5 × 5, suggesting that meaningful adaptations can be achieved with lower training volumes. These findings support the efficacy of short-term, lower-dose RT interventions for untrained older adults.

Maintaining physical fitness in older adults is crucial for preventing functional decline. This study aimed to examine the effects of a 6-month medium-intensity training (MIT) programme on physical fitness components in older adults. In this randomized controlled trial, 72 older adults aged 60–70 years in Indonesia were randomly assigned to either an exercise group (EG; n = 36) or a control group (CG; n = 36). The EG participated in MIT sessions (60 minutes, 3 times per week). Each session consisted of a warm-up with joint mobility and flexibility exercises, followed by 15–20 minutes of moderate-intensity walking performed at 55-70

Synaptic input to the motoneuron pool is altered during fatiguing muscle contractions. In humans, the corticospinal tract is often studied, with equivocal findings regarding its role in the reduction of force. To date, the involvement of the reticulospinal tract during states of fatigue has not been explored. Fourteen participants (28 ± 6 years, nine males) visited the laboratory twice, first for a familiarisation, then for an experimental trial. Participants completed a 5‐min sustained elbow flexor contraction at an intensity eliciting 40% of the EMG recorded during a maximal isometric voluntary contraction (MVC). Before, during and after the contraction, transcranial magnetic stimulation and electrical cervicomedullary stimulation were used to elicit motor evoked potentials (MEPs) and cervicomedullary evoked potentials during the silent period (SP‐CMEPs), respectively, with CMEPs also being evoked in combination with a startling acoustic sound (CMEPcon). Electrical stimulation of the brachial plexus was used to evoke maximal compound action potentials of the elbow flexors ( M max ). The 5‐min contraction induced a 53% loss of force ( P < 0.001), with no change in background EMG (∼4% M max , P = 0.293). Neither MEP amplitude ( P = 0.246) nor CMEPcon ratio ( P = 0.489) was altered during the contraction, whereas CMEP and SP‐CMEP amplitudes were reduced by ∼20% and 50%, respectively ( P < 0.001) and remained depressed post‐task. The results suggest that neither corticospinal nor reticulospinal tract excitability was altered during a 5‐min constant‐EMG task at 40% maximal EMG. Instead, the aetiology of the neural contribution to fatigability appeared to be primarily related to the loss of motoneuron excitability.

This study examined whether the effects of krill oil supplementation on muscle function and size differ by sex, age or BMI in healthy older adults. This was a secondary exploratory analysis of a previous randomised controlled trial. Men and women aged ≥65 years, with BMI < 35 kg/m² and engaging in <1 h per week of structured exercise, were enrolled in a randomised, double-blind, controlled trial (NCT04048096) between March 2018 and March 2020. Participants received either 4 g/day krill oil or a control oil for 6 months. Ninety-four participants were included (Control n = 45; 27 women, 18 men; Krill n = 49; 26 women, 23 men) with muscle size, strength and neuromuscular function measured before and after the intervention period. Responses to intervention were compared between subgroups by sex (male/female), age (≤70 years/>70 years) and BMI (≤24.9 kg/m2/>25 kg/m2). Increases in muscle strength, size, and physical function in response to krill oil supplementation were comparable across age, sex and BMI subgroups (all P > 0.05). This was similar for neuromuscular measures although increases in the Mwave the response to krill oil supplementation differed by sex, with no change over time in females in either krill or control groups, but an increase in Mwave in males in the krill group (+3.80 [1.72–5.88] mV, p = 0.016) with a tendency for a decrease in the control group (−3.71 [1.58–6.05] mV, p = 0.059). In conclusion, krill oil supplementation improved muscle strength and size in older adults regardless of age, sex and BMI status, although neuromuscular effects of krill oil on membrane excitability, via the Mwave, may be more pronounced in men.ClinicalTrials.gov Identifier: NCT04048096

Lengthy periods of inactivity are experienced by substitutes during a soccer match, which can decrease muscle temperature, ultimately impacting performance. This study aimed to determine the effects of using a passive heat intervention in both a cold (2 degrees C) and thermoneutral (18 degrees C) environment on simulated soccer performance and perceptual responses. On four occasions, 14 trained male players, completed a pre-match warm-up, followed by 45 min of rest. After, players completed a half-time re-warm-up, followed by an additional 15 min of rest, simulating 60 min as a substitute. During these periods, players wore tracksuit bottoms (CON), or heated trousers (HEAT), over soccer attire. Once 60 min concluded, participants performed a Soccer Match Simulation (SMS) to assess physical performance. HEAT improved 15 m sprint performance in 2 degrees C (2.8%; p < 0.001) and 18 degrees C (2.6%; p < 0.001) conditions. Further, in HEAT, a significant trial and time effect on countermovement jump height and repeated sprint performance was observed in both 2 and 18 degrees C. Upon match entry, participants felt warmer (p < 0.01), more comfortable (p < 0.01), and felt an increase in match readiness following HEAT, during both conditions. Applying heated garments before match entry for soccer substitutes positively impacts physical performance and match readiness in thermoneutral and cold environments.

BACKGROUND:Limited evidence reports energy and macronutrient intake during competitive archery and whether any sex differences exist. Understanding these factors will provide insights into physiological demands and could inform more effective strategies to optimize performance for all archers in this precision-demanding sport. This study aimed to evaluate sweat rate (SR), sweat electrolyte loss, and energy intake (EI) in world-class archers throughout competition. METHOD:Eight (4 females) elite-standard archers (age: 21 ± 2 and 19 ± 1 years; body mass: 65.1 ± 2.8 and 60.1 ± 4.1 kg; stature: 179.3 ± 5.1 and 162.3 ± 0.8 cm, for males and females, respectively) from the Turkish National Archery Team participated. Data were collected over four days; assessments of hydration, SR, sweat composition ([Na+] and [K+]), and nutritional intake were completed at the same time each day. RESULTS:Male archers consumed more total energy (2,889 vs. 2,353 kcal, p = 0.007) and carbohydrates (5.3 vs. 3.9 g/kg, p = 0.046) compared to females, with intake fluctuating based on competition demands (i.e. match duration, and the total distance walked). SR and sweat [K+] loss, were greater in males compared to females (p ≤0.006). In contrast, no sex differences were observed in other hydration parameters (sweat [Na+] loss, urine-specific gravity). Moreover, all archers maintained adequate hydration status throughout the competition, with no differences in pre- and post-competition hydration levels (p > 0.05). CONCLUSION:This study expands on previous research by incorporating sex-specific analyses, demonstrating that while energy and carbohydrate intake varies between male and female archers, hydration-related variables remain consistent.

The neurophysiology of dorsiflexor motor pools are highly studied, with previous work showing adaptations in corticospinal tract function, but little is known about the responsiveness of the reticulospinal tract (RST). Specifically, it is unknown if RST function can be measured indirectly in the tibialis anterior (TA). RST function was quantified using the StartReact protocol whereby dorsi flexor contractions were performed ‘as fast as possible’ in response to visual (VRT), visual auditory (VART; 80 dB), or visual-startling (VSRT; 110 dB) cues; with reaction time and the rate of torque development (RTD) calculated. We assessed the reproducibility of responses on two separate days separated by 3 weeks. Reaction times were faster during VSRT vs. VART during both visits (−7 ms; P < 0.001) confirming a StartReact effect. During the StartReact assessment, voluntary torque (F2,22 = 66.75, P < 0.001) and RTD over 50 (F2,22 = 22.02, P < 0.001) and 100 ms (F2,22 = 30.81, P < 0.001) increased in a stepwise manner (i.e., VSRT vs. VART vs. VRT). A good level of reliability was evident for assessment of reaction times (TE range 7–9%; ICC2,1 range 0.68 – 0.77), but measures of the VART−VSRT difference and RST Gain (TE, ≥23%; ICC2,1, ≤0.54), along with absolute and relative RTD (TE ≥19%; ICC2,1 ≤0.82) showed poorer levels of reliability. In conclusion, the StartReact method can be used to measure RST function in the TA, albeit the magnitude of this effect is small and aspects of between day reliability are poor.

OBJECTIVES:soccer substitutes experience lengthy periods of limited to no activity, before entering match play, which can lead to decrements in muscle temperature and performance. The present study determined whether performance and perceptual responses are affected following the implementation of a passive heat intervention used by substitutes in cold (∼7 °C) conditions. DESIGN:on two occasions, 10 trained male soccer players completed a standardised pre-match warm-up, followed by 45 min of being a substitute. After this, players completed a half-time re-warm-up before an additional 15 min of passive rest, replicating 60 min as a substitute. METHODS:substitutes wore a standardised tracksuit (CON) or heated trousers (HEAT), over typical soccer attire. Core temperature and perceptual data were recorded every 15 min. Following the 60 min, players entered an 11 vs. 11 match for the final 30 min which included measurement of GPS variables. RESULTS:upon match entry, players felt warmer (P < 0.01) and more comfortable (P < 0.01) in HEAT compared to CON, without differences in core temperature (P = 0.223). Furthermore, participants felt less fatigued (P < 0.05) and more motivated (P < 0.01). Throughout the match, distance covered at >21 km/h (325 ± 187 vs. 210 ± 113 m/h; P < 0.05) and the number of Band 3 accelerations (>3 m/s; 9.67 ± 5.1 vs. 6.11 ± 3.8; P < 0.05) increased in HEAT compared to CON. CONCLUSIONS:implementing a passive heating intervention before match entry, positively impacts physical performance and perceptual responses for soccer substitutes in cold conditions.

This study examined the type, frequency, and severity of symptoms experienced by naturally menstruating women and combined, monophasic, oral contraceptive pill users and their perceived effects on exercise performance and recovery time posttraining. Forty-two recreationally active women; 21 naturally menstruating and 21 combined, monophasic, oral contraceptive pill users participated in the study. Data were collected using two approaches: (a) an online 54-part retrospective survey and (b) a daily questionnaire. “Total number of symptoms,” “symptom index score,” “average symptom severity,” and “symptom index × severity score” were calculated from the retrospective data set. Real-time symptom data (i.e., “symptom frequency per phase ” and “ phase symptom frequency × severity score”) were calculated across predefined cycle phases from the daily questionnaire. The retrospective survey showed that symptoms were commonly reported by recreationally active women, but there were no differences in symptomology between the groups ( p > .113). The daily questionnaire showed both groups experienced a greater frequency and severity of symptoms while bleeding ( p ≤ .001), which was associated with perceived reductions in exercise performance (odds ratio = 1.04–1.07) and a perceived longer recovery time posttraining (odds ratio = 1.03–1.04). The results from this study show that cycle-related symptoms were commonly reported by a group of recreationally active women, with no difference in symptomology between naturally menstruating women and combined, monophasic, oral contraceptive pill users. The magnitude of symptoms was greater while bleeding, which was associated with a perceived reduction in exercise performance and a longer recovery time posttraining.

This study aimed to verify whether the slowing of muscle contraction quickness, typically observed in states of fatigue, may worsen force control by decreasing the rate with which force fluctuations are modulated. Therefore, we investigated the relationship between rate of force development (RFD), and force fluctuations' magnitude (Coefficient of variation, CoV) and complexity (Approximate Entropy, ApEn; Detrended fluctuation analysis, DFAα). Fourteen participants performed intermittent ballistic isometric contractions of the plantar dorsiflexors at 70

Experimental studies show improvement in physical performance following acute application of transcranial direct current stimulation (tDCS). This study examined the neuromuscular and neural responses to a single training session (Part 1) and following a 3 wk resistance training program (Part 2) performed with the knee extensors, preceded by tDCS over the primary motor cortex. Twenty-four participants (age, 30 ± 7 yr; stature, 172 ± 8 cm; mass, 72 ± 15 kg) were randomly allocated to perform either resistance training with anodal tDCS (a-tDCS) or a placebo tDCS (Sham). Resistance training consisted of 3 × 10 isometric contractions of 3 s at 75% maximal voluntary contraction (MVC). Measures of neuromuscular function (MVC, voluntary activation, and potentiated twitch force), corticospinal excitability, along with short and long cortical inhibition were assessed. Acute tDCS did not affect neuromuscular and neural responses to a single training session (all P ≥ 0.10). Conversely, after the 3 wk training program, MVC increased in both groups (P < 0.01) with a greater increase observed for a-tDCS vs. Sham (∼6%, P = 0.04). Additionally, increased voluntary activation (∼2%, P = 0.04) and corticospinal excitability (∼22%, P = 0.04), accompanied by a shorter silent period (-13%, P = 0.04) were found after a-tDCS vs. Sham. The potentiated twitch force and measures of short and long cortical inhibition did not change after the training program (all P ≥ 0.29). Pretraining administration of tDCS only resulted in greater neuromuscular adaptations following 3 wk of resistance training. These results provide new evidence that tDCS facilitates adaptations to resistance training in healthy individuals.NEW & NOTEWORTHY The initial increase in maximal strength during resistance training is attributed to neural adaptations. Acute administration of transcranial direct current stimulation (tDCS) has been shown to improve motor function and neural adaptations in healthy and clinical populations. This study measured the neuromuscular and neural response to acute (single training session) and short-term (3 wk) resistance training with tDCS. Greater neuromuscular and neural adaptations were only found following 3 wk of resistance training.