Operant conditioning that includes primarily positive reinforcement (R+) has been shown to be an effective and welfare-friendly method of training horses. Despite this, operant conditioning and R+ are not fully understood by many horse trainers who claim to advocate for its use. Anecdotal observations suggest that some professional trainers who claim to use R+ do not use R+ primarily, even in publicly offered educational demonstrations. To better understand readily available training materials regarding the use of R+ with horses, we reviewed a sample of 20 online trailer-training demonstrations to evaluate the extent to which R+ was used. Based on the percentage of trainer actions judged to be R+ versus negative reinforcement (R-), positive punishment (P+), or negative punishment (P-), eight of the 20 (40%) demonstrations included R+ exclusively. Three additional demonstrations included primarily R+ (> 90% of trainer actions), with the remainder R-. Seven used mostly R+ (55-80% R+ in combination with R-), and two used little R+ (16-23%), with the remainder mostly R-. The percentage of positive behavioral responses of the horse toward loading progress was strongly positively associated with the percentage of R+ trainer actions (r2 = 0.90, p < 0.0001). The results of this sample confirm that not all online demonstrations of R+ accurately portray primarily R+.

Gastric ulcer disease and other potentially painful gastric conditions are among the most common afflictions adversely affecting the welfare of domestic equids. A large percentage of affected animals may not display the classic signs of gastric disease, such as unexplained weight loss, poor hair coat, and inappetence until the disease becomes severe. As a clinical service within our equine referral hospital, we routinely evaluate 24-h video recorded samples of horses to assist clinicians in identifying subtle discomfort and potential sources or to scan for infrequent neurologic or cardiac-related behavioral events. Empirically, we have recognized discomfort behaviors that appear to be uniquely associated with gastric disease. These include frequent attention to the cranial abdomen (nuzzling, swatting, nipping, and/or caudal gaze focused on the abdomen caudal to the elbow) and/or deep abdominal stretching, often within the context of eating, drinking, and/or anticipating feeding. To systematically evaluate the reliability of these purported gastric discomfort behaviors, we reviewed 30 recent 24-h video behavior evaluation cases for which (1) the clinical video behavior evaluation had been carried out without knowledge of the history and presenting complaint and (2) direct gastric examination had confirmed gastric disease status at the time. Twenty-four of the thirty cases showed gastric discomfort behavior, and all twenty-four had either gastric ulcers (n = 21) and/or gastric impaction (n = 3). Of the six cases not showing gastric discomfort behaviors, four were free of gastric disease, while two had mild lesions. Comparing horses with and without gastric disease, gastric discomfort behaviors were reported in 24 of the 26 (92%) with gastric ulcers or gastric impaction, compared to none of the four gastric disease-free horses. Although a larger prospectively designed study is needed to confidently estimate the sensitivity and specificity or the associations of behavior with the type or severity of gastric disease, these results confirm our long-held clinical impression of a behavioral signature for gastric discomfort in the horse.

OBJECTIVE To describe a standing hand-assisted laparoscopic ovariohysterectomy in a mare. ANIMAL A 15-year-old maiden Oldenburg mare. CLINICAL PRESENTATION, PROGRESSION, AND PROCEDURES The mare was presented for evaluation of bucking under saddle and uncharacteristic aggressive behavior. Evaluation of a 24-hour video of the mare in a stall showed behavior consistent with caudal visceral abdominal discomfort. Reproductive evaluation revealed a pyometra secondary to complete transluminal cervical adhesions. The mare was initially managed medically with disruption of the adhesions and uterine lavage, but the adhesions reformed within 6 weeks and could not be manually disrupted. TREATMENT AND OUTCOME To eliminate the recurrence of pyometra, the mare underwent standing hand-assisted laparoscopic ovariohysterectomy through bilateral flank incisions. The only complication was a seroma at 1 flank incision that resolved after drainage. CLINICAL RELEVANCE Complete ovariohysterectomy in the mare is a challenging procedure and has previously been performed under general anesthesia. This is the first report of the procedure being performed completely in the standing mare without inversion of the uterus through the cervix.

Priapism is an abnormally prolonged erection of the penis normally not associated with sexual desire. It can occur in horses following phenothiazine tranquilizer administration. In general, priapism therapy consists of slings, massage, diuretics, cholinergic blockade and surgery. A 17-year-old, 538-kg KWPN breeding stallion was referred with priapism of > 4 days duration. Priapism occurred on the farm after a single IM injection of 15 ml imidocarb for treatment of suspected piroplasmosis (Babesia PCR positive). The horse was referred to a clinic where he was treated with 12ml flunixin meglumine IV, 30ml dexamethasone IV, 5ml furosemide IM and nadroparine calcique SC. Hematology and biochemistry were within normal limits except for a slight elevation of ASAT, LHD and total bilirubin. He was correctly vaccinated against influenza/tetanus/equine herpes virus and negative for all equine venereal diseases. On arrival the body score was 7/9 and a completely normal systemic and reproductive exam except for a non-painful erect penis, which he was unable to retract. Surgical creation of a vascular shunt between the corpus cavernosum penis (CCP) and the corpus spongiosum (CS) was proposed but rejected. After sedation with detomidine and butorphanol IV,10 mg phenylephrine diluted in 5ml NaCl 0.9% was injected twice in the CCP in 24 hours, at 1cm dorso-caudal to the corona glandis of the penis. After the second injection, permanent detumescence was achieved.Paralysis/paraphimosis necessitated 2 months of meloxicam treatment and use of a penile suspensory device to keep the penis in position. An initial 4-week intense acupuncture treatment did not resolve the paraphimosis. During a 2-month period, 3 cold showers of 30 minutes each were applied daily, each time resulting in partial retraction. He also received 60 ml Vitamin B per os daily for 3 months. Seven months post-injury, semen could only be collected via pharmacologically induced ejaculation (100%). Despite his excellent libido, regular trials to collect semen on the dummy, using three different AVs and with the aid of systemic gabapentin, clomipramine, oxytocin, phenylbutazone, xylazine, gonadotropin, topical testosterone gel and hot compresses at the root of the penis never resulted in effective ejaculation. Ultrasonographic examination revealed multiple distinct hyperechogenic areas in the CC. Twenty months post injury the stallion, ejaculated for the first time on the dummy in a hot and tight Colorado AV while under clomipramine, oxytocin, phenylbutazone and xylazine medication. All medication was gradually discontinued over the ensuing month. Until today he has remained active as a fertile breeding stallion without using any medication. This case shows that non-surgical treatment for priapism can be a valid alternative for the stallion to return to a normal full-time breeding activity on the dummy.

After 25 years of studies on methodologies for behavioral assessment of equine pain, the Unesp-Botucatu Horse Acute Pain Scale (UHAPS) and the Orthopedic Composite Pain Scale (CPS) were recently considered suboptimal instruments to assess pain in hospitalized horses. However, the combination of the two instruments has never been examined. The objective was to investigate whether the merging, mining, and weighting of UHAPS and CPS behavioral items in a single instrument using a predictive model could improve the capacity to diagnose pain in horses. A previously video-collected behavioral database of 42 horses admitted to three different hospitals for orthopedic or soft tissue surgery was used. Multilevel binomial logistic regression models were used to merge, mine, and weight the behaviors of both instruments. The classification quality between the model and the instruments was compared by the area under the curve (AUC) and its 95% confidence interval. The short model containing 25% of the behaviors of the two instruments showed a higher AUC (98.64 [98.16 - 99.12]; p < 0.0001) than the UHAPS (84.63 [82.08 - 87.18]) and CPS (88.62 [86.56 - 90.66]), independently. We conclude that merging, mining, and weighting the UHAPS and CPS behavior items into a single predictive model appears to be a promising strategy to improve pain diagnostic skill and promote equine welfare.

Chapter 24 Equine Care Sue McDonnell, Sue McDonnellSearch for more papers by this author Sue McDonnell, Sue McDonnellSearch for more papers by this author Book Editor(s):Brian A. DiGangi DVM, MS, DABVP, Brian A. DiGangi DVM, MS, DABVP Senior Director Shelter Medicine, Shelter & Veterinary Services, ASPCA®, Gainesville, FL, USASearch for more papers by this authorVictoria A. Cussen PhD, CAAB, Victoria A. Cussen PhD, CAAB Senior Director Applied Behavior Research, Behavioral Sciences Team, ASPCA®, Seattle, WA, USASearch for more papers by this authorPamela J. Reid PhD, CAAB, Pamela J. Reid PhD, CAAB Vice President Behavioral Sciences Team, ASPCA®, Hendersonville, NC, USASearch for more papers by this authorKristen A. Collins MS, ACAAB, Kristen A. Collins MS, ACAAB Vice President Behavioral Rehabilitation Services, ASPCA®, Mars Hill, NC, USASearch for more papers by this author First published: 21 June 2022 https://doi.org/10.1002/9781119618515.ch24 AboutPDFPDF ToolsRequest permissionExport citationAdd to favoritesTrack citation ShareShareShare a linkShare onFacebookTwitterLinked InRedditWechat Summary A considerable number of horses find their way into shelter care in farm animal facilities commonly referred to as farm animal rescues or sanctuary farms as well equine-specific rescue and rehabilitation or retirement farms. As with the care of other animals in shelter environments, steps must be taken to ensure both psychological and physical well-being of horses. Measures to both prevent problem development and mitigate the impact of those that are preexisting should take into account the unique physiology of equine species as well as their history as a grazing, herd-living prey species. This chapter outlines behavioral considerations for horses in shelter care, particularly for the shelter whose population does not routinely include horses. Animal Behavior for Shelter Veterinarians and Staff, Second Edition RelatedInformation

Vaccinations via intramuscular injection are a key component of preventative health care in horses. Development of problematic behavioral aversion to injections is quite common. Our clinical impression has been that topical anesthetic applied to injection sites can reduce the behavioral reaction; however, this has not been critically tested. To blindly evaluate efficacy, either 5% or 10% topical lidocaine solution or 0% control was applied to injection sites for 78 ponies two minutes before intramuscular vaccination. Mean reaction scores on a scale of 0–3 were 0.84 (se 0.18) for 5% lidocaine solution, 0.62 (se 0.14) for 10% lidocaine solution, compared to 1.30 (se 0.19) for 0% control solution. Reaction scores for both the 5% and 10% lidocaine were significantly lower than for the control group. Additionally, the proportion of subjects with a reaction greater than a slight flinch was 2 of 25 for the 5% lidocaine, 5 of 26 for the 10% lidocaine and 15 of 27 for the 0% lidocaine control. For both the 5% and 10% lidocaine groups, the proportion differed significantly from the control. The difference between the 5% and 10% lidocaine groups was not statistically significant. These findings confirm our clinical impression that application of topical anesthetic just two minutes in advance of intramuscular injection can effectively reduce the behavior reaction of horses.