Socialpsykologien er både opstået med og har udviklet sig igennem håndteringen af individualitetens udfordringer imellem personlig funktion og samfundsmæssig integration. Denne problematik er blevet om muligt mere påtrængende i dag. En central udvikling i moderniteten drejer sig om individualiseringens ændrede form. Hvor den traditionelle individualiseringsproblematik pegede på, at individet skulle udvikle sin individualitet f.eks. igennem uddannelses- og socialiseringsforløb, så består udfordringen i dag i at sikre individualitetens samfundsmæssighed. Individet er blevet aktør for både sin egen og den samfundsmæssige udvikling. I artiklen sættes fokus på denne proces og der peges på de to veje, som udviklingen i socialpsykologien må tage: En opmærksomhed på »structuration« eller »organizing« som en reetablering af rutiner og herigennem social struktur og en udvikling af de individuelle »kapitaler« som kompetencer for at mestre modernitetens udfordringer.

Ungdom har ofte været årsag til samfundsmæssig nervøsitet. Som en oprørsk og ukontrollabel social kraft har den tiltrukket sig politisk og samfundsvidenskabelig opmærksomhed. Ungdommens oprørskhed og ukontrollable adfærd synes imidlertid at udgøre en central og naturlig dimension i hele spørgsmålet om udviklingen af ungdom, idet »ungdomsproblemet« handler om socialitetens problem og om individualisering og social integration.I denne artikel er fokus sat på at forstå og analysere ungdomsproblemet, og hvorledes den historiske problematik omkring socialitetens problem har udgjort grundlaget for udviklingen af socialpsykologien. Massepsykologien har her spillet en central rolle som et første skridt i socialpsykologiens udvikling. Den opstod med spørgsmålet om, hvordan socialitetens problem skulle begribes og udgjorde - og stadig udgør - en psykologiserende og før-videnskabelig ramme for at forstå socialitetens problem - og derfor problemerne med de unge.

Individualization has been a much debated topic in youth research for decades now. Getting a good education and choosing the right one is one of the manifold ways young people deal with late-modern individualization challenges. Based on in-depth interviews with 12 young students aged 17-20 years in the Danish Gymnasium we investigate how young people make sense of, and deal with, these challenges by focusing on how they handle and reflect on their educational biographies. We employ The General Activity Theory to sensitize our contextual understanding of individualization in relation to the youth perspective. Based on our data analysis, this study contributes theoretically by further-developing the concept of strategic self-management' in an educational context. We conclude that this concept is suitable for encapsulating how young people make sense of, and deal with, their educational biographies facing the new youth challenges. The study thus contributes with an enhanced sensitivity in relation to understanding some of the contemporary challenges of young people whose choice about education echo into their future work life.

The Danish welfare system inadvertently provides a good opportunity for young creative people to pursue their dreams in creative fields such as art, acting, music while being on unemployment benefits. As Michael, one of the participants, puts it: I consider unemployment benefit entrepreneurial support'. The subversive practice is illegal. This qualitative study investigates how young unemployed people who choose to be unemployed in order to engage in innovative projects in creative fields understand and justify their practice. Analysis of in-depth interviews with six young unemployed persons shows how the understanding and management of responsibility is pivotal in the self-understanding and legitimization of receiving unemployment benefits by choice, not out of need. This creative group reflects the contours of a new type of unemployed that has received very little attention in the research literature. The group challenges the traditional representation of the unemployed and portrays themselves as innovative, competent and able to cope with financial insecurity even though it is psychologically distressing and a risky path to go down. We characterize them as strategic self-managing as they use educational systems and unemployment benefit systems for something entirely different from what they are intended - they use it to create their own artistic life courses. This study tentatively points to a categorization distinguishing between personal, social and societal responsibility by which we can improve our understanding of responsibility in neoliberal contexts.

In everyday life young people with ethnic minority background, or “the new youth” in Europe, face both a social and cultural integration challenge. On the one hand, they are placed as other young people in an individualisation and identity process of late modern youth life which is demanding and important for future social success. On the other hand, they are challenged by a new cultural lifestyle which may be different from traditions and values of parents. This cultural integration process therefore may make it difficult to engage and become successful in late modern life. So, their cultural identity is challenged and in a change. This way of contrasting two different perspectives in young people’s lives seems difficult because of the different theoretical views embedded in these perspectives. What however both approaches seem to overlook is, that ethnic minority social integration is a process which has in its centre the individual and individualised agent. This focus combines the two perspectives. The integration process is mostly about the agent as an engaged player in his or her life. An agent is one who finds and uses energy in a process of becoming integrated in some kind of social and cultural life. In our paper, we use experiences from Danish research and our European research project Up2Youth to draw some lines in understanding the life of the group of “new youth” and their situation as caught in-between processes of objective and subjective social integration. Especially we will focus on young peoples’ activities as their solution to the process of developing late modern agency according to the demand of individualised social responsibility.

This paper presents three different studies on youth and family relations and the role of family influence in youth individualisation. They show the growing importance of individualisation in late modern youth life development and the process of youth life change from family dependence to peer relations. This change is seen as part of a greater change in family life, which change social agency from adults and family to the individual and its personal choices. The first study compares Siberian and Danish young people and their family and peer relations and points to the challenges of developing an independent youth life as a changing force in individualisation. The second study looks at Danish young people and their use of family and peer support in everyday life. This study tells how a recognised independent youth life creates new form of social relations between young people and the family. The third study looks for knowledge of ethnic minority youth individualisation in their acculturation or social integration process in late modern Europe. This study illustrates some practical aspects of the two first analyses. Ethnic minority youth often seem to be caught between family and late modern peer youth life. The study tells that changing family practice becomes important for the young persons. Families are in a change from a “reproductive” family to a “modern” or even “supportive” family and this change influences the individualisation process of ethnic minority youth.

The purpose of this paper is to develop a framework for understanding the growth in youth gangs and gang behaviour. The paper builds on a youth theory perspective and describes how the social conditions work with or are against the young individual in such a way that gangs seem to be an option or an answer for some young people when faced with today’s youth life situation. In this study, it focuses on the development of social vs. societal gangs, and on the late modern challenges of individualised social responsibility and the use of social relations in managing individualisation problems.

Unge er placeret i en særlig verden af individuelle og sociale udfordringer. De befinder sig i en overgangsfase mellem at være barn og voksen. Det er derfor ikke så underligt, at ungdomsforskningen er blevet et trafikcenter for videnskabelige teoridannelser og faglige uenigheder. Ungdomsforskningen er optaget af at forstå unges både samfundsmæssige og individuelle udfordringer. Det betyder på den ene side, at ungdomsforskningen forandrer sig med ungdomslivets ændringer, men på den anden side også, at den har en tilbøjelighed til at dele sig i to hovedtilgange, en psykologisk og en social. I en psykologisk diskurs kommer den individuelle udvikling fra barn til ung i fokus og i en social diskurs rettes opmærksomheden på unges udvikling til at kunne fungere i samfundet. For begge diskurser gælder det, at de er optaget af ungdomslivets forandringer. Dette betyder imidlertid ikke, at ungdomslivets forandringer gives samme status i forskningen. Ungdomsdiskurserne ser ungdomslivet enten som unges grundlag eller unges omstændigheder og skaber hermed forskellige ungdomsteorier. I denne artikel analyseres ungdomsdiskursernes udvikling, og det vises, hvilke muligheder og perspektiver der følger en ungdomsforskning, som ikke blot forstår samfundsmæssige forhold som omstændigheder for individuel udvikling, men som sætter ungdomslivet som grundlag for en ungdomsforståelse. Denne analyse har ikke til formål at ophæve de to hoveddiskurser, men at pege på, at en handlingsteoretisk socialpsykologisk ungdomsforskning, som ser ungdomslivet som unges udviklingsgrundlag, giver muligheder for at inddrage perspektiver fra begge diskurser i udviklingen af en forståelse af unges sociale og subjektive udfordringer og problemer.

The authors deal with changes in the relationship between education and learners due to modernization processes. The motivation of the learner has become a prime force to ensure the acquisition of knowledge. That implies a broadening of educational strategies, including nonformal education to remotivate frustrated learners.

Youth is a historical construction and an answer to a specific challenge of individualisation in biography. And, as a historical and social construction, youth has to be learned. This article focuses on youth development from an action or activity theory perspective and as a learning process. It demonstrates how different youth problems and forms of youth differentiation follow forms of youth learning. Moreover, it shows how late modern development creates the demand for a new non-formal learning perspective to secure the development of new forms of competence. Based on Danish research concerning peer learning as a non-formal learning context, some perspectives of peer-learning competence are discussed.

The modern process of individualization takes place both at an institutional and an individual level. The challenge for the subject is to learn to personally manage this task in the context of institutional individualization. In this article, the contribution of social psychology to the analysis of this subject challenge is investigated in terms of the requirements of individualization.

In this article educational challenges and developments are analysed from a youth studies perspective. Youth research is engaged in understanding the links between societal change and youth responses with a focus on the relation between social integration and individualization. The article shows how a new analysis of the relation between youth, modernization and competence might influence both the general understanding of youth understanding and educational developmental perspectives. In modern society, the period of youth is changing from being a transition to a highly valued period in its own right. In this way, youth life functions as a reserved situation of fragmented contextualization of modern development. This change questions the traditional educational perspective and underlines the new challenge of developing general competence for modern life. In this situation, conversely, young people should not learn to be adults but to be youth.

This chapter analyses the tension between employability and competence, two concepts that have recently come onto the European policy agenda. At first sight, policy documents operate with the assumption that both of these concepts are compatible, with competence being a necessary prerequisite of employability. With a more detailed second appraisal, however, it can be shown that employability, as a labour-market-related concept in most interpretations, is understood as an adaptation of the workforce to labour-market demands, while competence is related to a more holistic view of individual-capacity building and identity work. The chapter broadens the perspective in two directions, arguing that both social modernisation and individual personal development have to be considered as the necessary context for the conceptualisation of competence and employability.

Peer education is an innovative method for working with young people. The aim of this study was to design a peer education model based on shared practice as an instrument for working with young people in need of support. The study analyses the practice of peer education in Denmark, and its theoretical development. The research is supplemented by description of peer education programmes in other European countries: England, Scotland, Northern Ireland, Ireland, Norway, Sweden and Iceland. The work was based mainly on interviews with the various players in the subject area, using a participative methodology. The main contributions of this teaching method are in the area of active involvement, shared responsibility, personal and social development, self-reliance and motivation. Methodology and Methods The study is based primarily on interviews conducted with the different players involved in the field: young people participating in peer groups, educators who use this method, youth centre workers, those responsible for projects providing support to young people, as well as others who have played an important role in developing peer education processes. The study of the application of peer education in Denmark has focussed on six youth groups, three of which are supported by adult organisations and three of which are selforganised. The cases are as follows: Youth groups with organisational support: "Sexualists" "Peer groups on drugs" "Peer group networks" Self-organised youth groups: "No Hope with Dope" "Stop Violence" CEMYC (ethnic minorities) To carry out the comparative analysis with other European countries, we contacted youth workers, social workers and researchers in the field from London, Cardiff, Belfast and Dublin. We also had discussions with specialists from Sweden, Norway, Iceland and Finland. The material from the interviews was processed and analysed, while the team of researchers formulated a theoretical appraisal of the contribution of peer education to the field of youth work today. The research study combines the two parallel activities of theoretical development and analysis of the peer education method in practice. Initial Research Objectives The study has two main objectives: to describe and gather together the existing experience in the field of peer education in Denmark in order to build a framework within which to carry out an analysis and conduct a coherent consideration from the point of view of pedagogical theory; to research and compare the development of peer education in various European countries (Anglo-Irish zone, Nordic zone), with a view to learning about and exchanging experience. The aim of the study was to design a peer education model based on shared practice as an instrument for working with young people in need of support. Moreover, the material is intended to provide a contribution to debate and to the international development of peer education. The departure point for the present study was: "How does peer education as a pedagogical method contribute to enabling young people to deal with modern life?" Changes in the initial Research Objectives The initial objectives of the research project have not been modified. However, after beginning the study, and given the breadth of its scope, it was decided that some adjustments should be made in the organisation and presentation of the final documentation. The material is divided into two publications: one, published in Danish, focussing on the practice of peer education in various European countries; the other, published in both Danish and English, is a theoretical consideration of the concept of modernity in relation to peer education, with a view to clarifying the potential of this method applied to youth work. The two publications complement each other. Main Research Results 1.-Analysis of peer education in Denmark 1.1.-Study of the six peer education groups Although there are no major internal differences among the peer education initiatives analysed, differences can be detected between youth groups which receive organisational support and those which are self-organised. Involvement in peer groups encourages the following in young people: active participation involvement and familiarity with the group and society interest in social experience independence and assertiveness improved relationship with themselves, peers, family and other areas of society greater self-reliance; adults as a point of reference greater awareness of their own potential and limitations (strengths and weaknesses) development of skills Reflection on the pedagogical value and methodology of peer education in the field of youth work is increasingly important in Denmark. This process is the fruit of practical experience. However, in general terms, it is the result of sporadic initiatives leading to isolated activities, in which little attempt is made to advance the theory and methodology involved. 1.2.Peer education and modernity The increasing use and development of peer education is taking place in the new context of modern society, with the new demands and needs of young people. Peer education is a pedagogical response to the new situation experienced by young people, and is a process in which young people themselves are players and decision-makers: the challenges posed are subjectivity, democracy and shared responsibility; it promotes young people's active participation in modern life; it is grounded in debate and reflection as methods of learning from one another; it encourages the development of young people based on qualification and selfdetermination; it is an instrument for involving young people from different ethnic and cultural backgrounds. Most professionals in the field, however, do not work within the framework of the modern life of young people. 1.3.-Reflections on the limitations Peer education proposes a new role for adults as guides and providers of support. The adult is a necessary figure whose role it is to motivate and activate the process, while delegating the role of principal player to the young people themselves. There is a risk that the adult's role may be seen as manipulating the process. The professionals interviewed state that the method is appropriate, but a need was detected for a more in-depth study of its potential strengths and weaknesses. The method has potential, but requires a number of favourable conditions if it is to bring about the desired results. The features mentioned occur in the majority of peer education projects, although they are explicitly stated as objectives and pedagogical methodology in only a few cases. Peer education as it is actually practised is more a result of day-to-day practice than of any structured prior reflection. 2.-Peer education from the European perspective The origin of this pedagogical method "among peers" is similar throughout Europe and derives chiefly from England. It was born out of a desire to tackle several health issues (e.g., AIDS) affecting young people in the '80s, at a time when the effectiveness of traditional teaching methods was being questioned. The common objective was to inform and involve young people. Peer education projects have subsequently evolved in different directions, depending on the country concerned. Modernity : In Denmark, the emphasis has been placed on the importance of change and the challenges involved in modernity in the lives of young people, whereas in other countries, such as England, interest has been focussed more on promoting social skills, the transformations taking place in the social context being regarded as a less central factor. Youth as a life-phase in its own right as opposed to a transitional phase : In Denmark, youth is seen as a distinct phase, and the aim of peer education is to assist in "the construction of oneself as a young person". In other countries, indeed the majority of them, youth is conceived as a transition to adulthood and emphasis is placed on learning the skills appropriate to adult life. Intrinsic characteristics : Another element which influences the diversity of conceptions and applications of peer education is its adaptability to the characteristics of each given community and its own historical traditions. In countries with various cultural traditions, such as Scotland or Northern Ireland, peer education has incorporated the promotion of local values as a distinguishing factor. In Nordic countries, for example, where the welfare state has a broader base, the introduction of peer education projects has been slower, since many needs are already covered by the public authorities and there is a greater degree of social stability and control. In all the countries studied, there was a concern to promote new methods for working with young people along the lines of peer education, although the evolution of these methods has varied in each country, depending on the context. Conclusions from the Main Research Results Peer education is an innovative methodology in the education of young people "among equals", within the context of modern European society. The main contributions of this pedagogical method are in the area of such concepts as active involvement, shared responsibility, personal and social development, selfreliance, motivation, and others. Peer education has not been directly developed as a pedagogical instrument, but rather has emerged from the day-to-day practice of different initiatives. We have detected a need to formulate a pedagogical definition which reflects the challenges facing young people in the modern world as well as the new practices which are being carried out. There is a need for an in-depth study of the methodology's strengths and weaknesses, its appropriate target group, the skills to be developed, and the role of the adult professionals involved. Peer education is a valid instrument when conditions and opportunities for qualified development, self-determination and democratisation are created