Theoretical backgroundMental toughness (MT) is a crucial psychological construct that enables athletes to perform high-level sports. Despite extensive research, MT suffers from conceptual ambiguity that oscillates between trait- and state-based interpretations. Despite this controversy, a widely accepted developmental framework of mental toughness, known as the Mental Toughness Pyramid has received widespread acceptance in the scientific field of sport psychology, delivering its fundamentals to researchers and practitioners.AimThe aim of this study is to critically reflect on existing research, theoretical models, and approaches regarding the concept of MT to provide new theoretical evidence that will help extend and specify the current understanding and work in the specific field. Specifically, our attempt is to enhance Mental Toughness Pyramid model precision by adding a cognitive-affective perspective and experience level. This approach can facilitate the work of researchers and practitioners.MethodsA semantic analysis and review of existing literature with the help of a database search was conducted primarily using Google Scholar and PubMed to identify relevant studies on the topic of MT and applied sport psychology. The initial focus was on review articles and foundational literature, which served as the basis for expanding the search to additional relevant sources. This approach ensured a thorough understanding of the current state of research and key theoretical frameworks in the field. In order to elaborate on existing findings, a link to further domains (e.g., psychological skills training, routine, and self-regulation) was established.ConclusionThe debate now shifts from a trait vs. state dichotomy to understanding MT as a multifaceted construct shaped by dynamic interactions among environment, personality, cognition, behavior, learning, and experience. From this point of view, we suggest an extension of Mental Toughness Pyramid in order to enhance the precision of researchers’ and practitioners’ work.

IntroductionResearch findings underline that human behavior and decisive action significantly depend on knowledge accessibility in long-term memory (LTM). For this purpose, various methods have been conducted and applied to help researchers gain insights into LTM functioning. These methods are based on traditional low-cost instruments (e.g., think-aloud protocols, memory protocols, questionnaires, a. o.) as well as modern high-cost technologies.MethodFurthermore, an emerging method that evolves traditional research techniques in a digitalized environment is Structural Dimensional Analysis-Motoric. This analysis is based on participants’ preferences regarding the closeness of given task-related concepts (TRCs) during a sorting process. From this perspective, chess is a highly cognitive domain involving an immense amount of specific knowledge—a reason it became a prominent field in cognitive research. The present study aims to examine how strategy-related patterns (meaningful and interconnected standardized chess motifs) are incorporated into the LTM of chess players, depending on their expertise (novices, intermediates, and high-level players).ResultsThe analysis shows a significant similarity between experts and intermediate chess players but no significant results for the comparisons between experts and intermediates to novices.DiscussionResearchers should make efforts to expand mental representation research in chess, for example, by manipulating a variety of strategy-related patterns (e.g., critical openings, middle games, and endgame situations) and/or enhancing the difficulty of the TRCs. The results can be applied to the further development of augmented feedback (e.g., assistive training systems) and virtual players (platforms).

Motor Imagery (MI) Brain-Computer Interfaces (BCIs) represent a promising technology for neurorehabilitation and assistive control. However, the clinical viability of these systems is frequently hindered by the inherent limitations of electroencephalography (EEG) with regard to its low signal-to-noise ratio (SNR), non-stationarity, and high inter-subject variability. Standard decoding methods often fail to capture the complexity of user intention leading to unreliable performance and user frustration. This review proposes a solution to these challenges by advocating for the integration of passive eye movements (EM) as a complementary data stream. The theoretical rationale for this approach rests on the neurocognitive principle of functional equivalence. Because imagined actions recruit similar visuomotor networks to those used in physical execution, EM constitute a robust correlate of the underlying neural simulation. We distinguish this approach from conventional hybrid systems that use gaze coordinates for active control. Instead, we argue for a framework of passive monitoring where oculomotor metrics, including pupil diameter, fixation patterns, and saccadic dynamics, serve as a continuous window into the user’s cognitive state. We synthesize evidence demonstrating that these passive signals can reliably index cognitive load, attentional allocation, and covert motor planning. By fusing these behavioral metrics with EEG, a BCI can disambiguate uncertain neural patterns and verify user intent without imposing additional task demands. Furthermore, we discuss how this multimodal integration enables the development of adaptive classifiers that respond to fluctuations in user fatigue and engagement. Bridging the gap between cognition and control through passive EM monitoring offers a pathway to create BCI systems that are intrinsically responsive to the user’s internal state.

Goal-directed grasping actions are often planned with respect to their intended final states, as reflected in the end-state comfort effect (ESC) where individuals adopt initially uncomfortable grasp postures to ensure a comfortable final posture. The present study investigates the neurophysiological mechanisms underlying the processing of action sequences in grasping using event-related potentials (ERPs) within a priming paradigm. Participants were presented with prime images showing initial grasp postures (overhand or underhand grip) followed by target images representing final grasp postures (thumb-up or thumb-down) that together depicted either possible or impossible action sequences. Participants responded to the color of the upper part of the bar in the target image, while grasp postures were task-irrelevant. The results reveal that responses to target images representing an uncomfortable final grasp (thumb-down) following an underhand grip in the prime were slower and elicited a stronger P300 amplitude compared to responses to comfortable final grasp targets (thumb-up). This effect was observed only when the prime-target sequence represented a physically possible action. These results suggest that perceiving an initial underhand grip leads to the anticipation of a functional final action state. Deviations from this expected outcome result in greater cognitive processing effort, as reflected by increased P300 amplitudes. This suggests that action representations in grasping are anticipatory in nature and incorporate information about likely future action outcomes. The findings are consistent with ideo-motor theories, highlighting the role of anticipated action effects in action processing, and provide novel insights into the cognitive and neural underpinnings of action representation.

Academic resilience and motivation are two key positive psychological constructs that have the capacity to influence learners’ engagement even in difficult conditions. Surprisingly, research investigating these relational constructs is limited in Ghana. The study examined the influence of academic resilience and motivation on engagement, highlighting rural–urban variations among senior high school students. This cross-sectional survey involved 190 senior high school students in Ghana, employing stratified sampling. Academic resilience, motivation, and engagement were assessed using the academic resilience scale (ARS-30), the motivated strategies for learning questionnaire (MSLQ), and the university student engagement inventory (USEI). Data were analysed using descriptive, Pearson correlation, and hierarchical multiple regression analyses. An independent t-test was also conducted to compare the study variables between rural and urban students, utilising IBM Statistical Package for the Social Sciences (SPSS) version 27. The correlational analysis revealed that academic resilience positively correlates with engagement and motivation. A regression model indicated that socio-demographic factors have a minimal impact on academic engagement, while academic resilience and motivation significantly predict it. No significant differences were found between urban and rural students regarding academic engagement, motivation, or resilience. Educators and policymakers are urged to implement strategies, including social–emotional learning and mentorship programmes, to support and cultivate academic resilience, motivation, and engagement among students. Future studies could investigate the relationship between academic, motivational intensity, and learners’ academic achievement across a larger sample.

Academic resilience is vital in students’ success, but its mechanisms in promoting academic well-being remain underexplored. This study investigated the direct effects of resilience on well-being, grit, and motivation and examined the mediating roles of grit and motivation in these relationships among Senior High School (SHS) students in Ghana. A descriptive correlational design was used, sampling 190 SHS students through stratified random sampling. Data were gathered using validated instruments for academic resilience (ARS-30), well-being (SSWQ), grit (AGS), and motivation (MSLQ). Partial Least Squares Structural Equation Modeling (PLS-SEM) analysed relationships and mediation effects, with bootstrapping (10,000 samples) employed for hypothesis testing. The analysis confirmed significant direct effects of academic resilience on grit (β = 0.518, p < 0.001), motivation (β = 0.479, p < 0.001), and well-being (β = 0.168, p = 0.022). Grit (β = 0.321, p < 0.001) and motivation (β = 0.356, p < 0.001) were significant predictors of well-being. Mediation analysis showed that grit (β = 0.166, p < 0.001) and motivation (β = 0.170, p < 0.001) partially mediated the relationship between resilience and well-being. This study underscores the significant role of academic resilience in enhancing students' well-being, with grit and motivation as key mediators. The findings suggest that fostering resilience, grit, and motivation can improve academic outcomes. Educational institutions should integrate strategies that promote these traits, such as resilience-building programs and mental health support. Policymakers are encouraged to prioritize initiatives that nurture these qualities to enhance students' academic success and well-being.

INTRODUCTION:The study explored the associations between academic resilience, learning motivation, self-regulated learning, and academic well-being among students in Ghana. It investigated the direct and mediating roles of learning motivation and self-regulated learning in the relationship between academic resilience and well-being. METHODS:A descriptive, cross-sectional survey was conducted among 190 students from three senior high schools in Afram Plains, Ghana. Data were collected using a questionnaire adapted from previous studies, measuring academic well-being, academic resilience, learning motivation, and self-regulated learning. Data were analysed using WebPower online statistical software and SmartPLS version 3 to perform Partial Least Squares Structural Equation Modelling (PLS-SEM). RESULTS:Preliminary analysis indicated non-normality of the data, justifying the use of PLS-SEM. The measurement model showed good psychometric properties and discriminant validity was established between the constructs. The structural model revealed significant direct relationships between academic resilience and well-being, learning motivation, and self-regulated learning. Learning motivation and self-regulated learning were significantly related to academic well-being. Mediation analysis showed that both learning motivation and self-regulated learning partially mediated the relationship between academic resilience and academic well-being. CONCLUSION:The findings highlight the importance of academic resilience, learning motivation, and self-regulated learning in enhancing academic well-being among the sampled students in Ghana. Designing interventions that strengthen students' resilience through self-regulation principles and motivational tendencies could improve students' academic outcomes and overall well-being.

Objectives: An objective evaluation of balance abilities is crucial in research, rehabilitation, sport, and daily life. With ongoing technical advancements, the number of innovative evaluation tools is continuously increasing. This study assessed the methodological quality of various differential balance assessments in young, healthy adults. Methods: Two technically sophisticated balance assessments using a force plate (Single-Leg Landing Test, Single-Leg Squat Test) and a conventional balance assessment using a simple test kit (Y-Balance Test) were applied to 42 students at two different time points. Test–retest reliability, parallel test reliability, and internal consistency were evaluated for each test and item. Results: All tests and (almost) all items showed excellent to acceptable test–retest reliability. In all tests, internal consistency was detected for only some items, while the other items were internally inconsistent. Only a small proportion of tests and/or their items demonstrated acceptable parallel test reliability. The balance performance of the right and left legs showed excellent or good reliability for each item. Conclusions: Significant test–retest reliability and consistency between right and left leg performance suggest good methodological quality of the assessments. The lack of parallel test consistency aligns with previous studies that emphasise the multi-faceted nature of balance tasks, suggesting that balance ability is task-specific rather than a “general ability”. Future studies should investigate and compare the biological and neural backgrounds of differential balance tasks to provide further insights into this topic.

Introduction:Motor imagery-based brain-computer interfaces (BCIs) are a technique for decoding and classifying the intention of motor execution, solely based on imagined (rather than executed) movements. Although deep learning techniques have increased the potential of BCIs, the complexity of decoding unilateral upper limb motor imagery remains challenging. To understand whether neurophysiological features, which are directly related to neural mechanisms of motor imagery, might influence classification accuracy, most studies have largely leveraged traditional machine learning frameworks, leaving deep learning-based techniques underexplored. Methods:In this work, three different deep learning models from the literature (EEGNet, FBCNet, NFEEG) and two common spatial pattern-based machine learning classifiers (SVM, LDA) were used to classify imagined right elbow flexion and extension from participants using electroencephalography data. From two recorded resting states (eyes-open, eyes-closed), absolute and relative alpha and beta power of the frontal, fronto-central and central electrodes were used to predict the accuracy of the different classifiers. Results:The prediction of classifier accuracies by neurophysiological features revealed negative correlations between the relative alpha band and classifier accuracies and positive correlations between the absolute and relative beta band and classifiers accuracies. Most ipsilateral EEG channels yielded significant correlations with classifier accuracies, especially for the machine learning classifier. Discussion:This pattern contrasts with previous findings from bilateral MI paradigms, where contralateral alpha and beta activity were more influential. These inverted correlations suggest task-specific neurophysiological mechanisms in unilateral MI, emphasizing the role of ipsilateral inhibition and attentional processes.

Research indicates that the development of cognitive structures significantly influences motor learning. However, this perspective overlooks the broader nature of motor learning, which encompasses not only cognitive changes but also neurophysiological and behavioral factors. This study aims to simultaneously examine the intricate motor learning process through cognitive, neurophysiological, and behavioral lenses to achieve a more comprehensive understanding. Thirty participants were randomly assigned to either a practice group (n = 15) or a control group (n = 15) and tested at pre-, post-, and retention tests. The practice group underwent an acquisition phase involving three practice days (3 × 100 trials of a golf putting task), while the control group did not participate. A hierarchical cluster analysis was conducted to group the basic action concepts into a coherent hierarchical structure, represented as a dendrogram. This dendrogram illustrated the relationships between basic action concepts. Analysis of mean group dendrograms revealed a significant increase in the organization of the cognitive structure within the practice group. EEG results indicated that the practice group's low and high alpha power increased significantly in frontal, central, and parietal areas (p < .05). Repeated measures ANOVA revealed that the practice group's motor performance errors decreased significantly (p < .05), while no changes were observed in the control group. Our findings suggest that motor learning involves simultaneous cognitive, neurophysiological, and behavioral adaptations. It appears that the motor learning process involves gradually constructing these structures over time, providing an extensive understanding of the motor learning process.

Background The dimensionality of the sense of coherence (SOC-L9) scale has been in contention due to the varied factor structure revealed in the literature. In this study, we assessed the dimensionality of the SOC-L9 scale using Ghanaian university students while guarding against the method effect. The study also examined the gender measurement invariance of the scale. Methods This research conveniently sampled 1,062 students who responded to the SOC-L9 scale with negative items reversed to positive items. A larger proportion of the participants were male students (n = 769, 72.4%), with 293(27.6%) being female students. The youngest participant was 18 years old, whereas the oldest was 42 years old. Following all validation studies protocols, four distinct confirmatory factor analysis models were fitted and compared (i.e., unidimensional, three-factor first-order, three-factor second-order and bifactor models). Results The initial model comparison revealed that the bifactor CFA model [CFI = 0.958, SRMR = 0.036, AIC = 21231.35, BIC = 21370.45] was superior to the unidimensional [CFI = 0.914, SRMR = 0.046, AIC = 26280.67, BIC = 26414.8] and 3-factor models [CFI = 0.932, SRMR = 0.040, AIC = 26221.67, BIC = 26370.71]. Upon further probing, it was discovered that SOC-L9 functions best as a unidimensional scale for the university student population. Gender measurement invariance was established for configural invariance (CFI = 0.986, SRMR = 0.044), metric invariance (CFI = 0.894, SRMR = 0.051) and scalar invariance (CFI = 0.983, SRMR = 0.047). Conclusion The SOC-L9 scale has a nested structure with the various sub-scales interacting to produce a summary total observed score. The structure of the SOC-L9 requires scholars to treat the scale as a unidimensional scale rather than a multidimensional one. This latent structure was found to be consistent with male and female university students.

Though several studies have established the effect of gender and age on the sense of coherence (SoC) and subjective well-being (SWB) among diverse populations, findings have been varied and inconclusive. These inconsistencies have been attributed to the differences in sample characteristics, methodological and cultural disparities. Thus, the present study assessed the following: (1) gender and age effect on SoC, (2) gender and age effect on SWB, and (3) moderating roles of gender and age in the link between SoC and SWB. Through a stratified sampling technique, 724 selected high school students from secondary schools in Northern Ghana completed the World Health Organization-5 Well-Being and Sense of Coherence instruments. The results showed that female students exhibited higher levels of SoC compared to their male counterparts. Whereas younger male and female students showed no significant difference in SWB levels, older female students, compared to older males, exhibited high levels of SWB. Age significantly moderated the relationship between SoC and SWB. With the same level of SoC, younger students were more likely to exhibit higher SWB compared to older ones. The findings call for sustainable gender- and age-based interventions because students subjectively develop SoC mechanisms for improving their well-being.

The COVID-19 disease affected the school workplace climate for teachers and led to psychological consequences. However, it is not clear how the workplace climate affected the anxiety levels of teachers. This study assessed the connection between workplace climate and COVID-19-related anxiety among senior high school (SHS) teachers during the COVID-19 pandemic. This study further examined the moderating role of professional and social media platform use on the relationship between workplace climate and COVID-19-related anxiety among teachers. Through a cross-sectional survey design, 395 high school teachers were conveniently sampled from various schools in the Central Region of Ghana. A questionnaire was used to survey participants, and the obtained data were analysed using descriptive statistics as well as simple linear regression and moderation analyses with Hayes’ PROCESS. This study revealed a negative association between workplace climate and anxiety. The relationship between workplace climate and anxiety was contingent on social media use but not professional platform use. Therefore, the consumption of unscrutinised COVID-19-related information on social media heightened fear and anxiety among teachers, even in the midst of a safe workplace environment. An effective strategy against teachers’ COVID-19-related anxiety required the provision of accurate science-driven information about the virus. School counselling psychologists, school welfare officers, and school health coordinators are encouraged to collaborate towards designed interventions that promote a safe working environment and the mental health of teachers.

Introduction The empirical link between digital health literacy (DHL) and sense of coherence (SoC) has been extensively discussed in the literature. Yet, there seems to be limited evidence regarding the roles of age and depression status in the link between DHL and SoC of adolescents and young adults (AYAs), especially during the COVID-19 crises. This study investigated the interplay between age, DHL, SoC and psychological distress. Particularly, the study examined the following: (1) relationship between DHL and SoC, (2) moderating role of age in the relationship between DHL and SoC as well as (3) moderating role of depression in the relationship between DHL and SoC. Methods The study used a cross-sectional survey to select 998 AYAs in secondary schools in Northern Ghana through questionnaire administration using a stratified sampling procedure. Results Findings reveal that age was positively and significantly related to DHL and SoC. However, age failed to moderate the relationship between DHL and SoC. With the same level of DHL, students who exhibited depressive symptoms compared to those without, had lower levels of SoC regardless of their age. Conclusions Although AYAs’ DHL are likely to differ across different age brackets, this gap does not affect their rates of SoC and depression. Nonetheless, there is a need to improve DHL through regular standard training on internet search using basic audio-visual materials like laptops, smart phones, tablets, and lab computers for adolescent and young adult students. Additionally, school authorities, in collaboration with other stakeholders should develop student-centred cognitive-behavioural strategies aimed at reducing depressive symptoms in secondary school students who are at risk of depression in Northern Ghana.

BACKGROUND:Although postgraduate studies have been shown to be associated with stressful experiences, students reading programmes through the distance and e-learning mode experience greater levels of stress due to several reasons. These stressful encounters might be heightened in female married postgraduates on distance education programmes due to other family-work-related engagements. This study investigated the stress-related experiences and intentions to quit studies among female married students on a distance education programme in Ghana.METHODS:Using a sequential explanatory mixed-methods design, 164 married postgraduate distance education students were sampled to participate by responding to a questionnaire. Follow-up interviews were conducted with 10 participants to offer insight into the quantitative findings. Quantitative data were analysed using descriptive statistics, including frequency and percentages, while the qualitative data were thematically analysed.RESULTS:Stress was prevalent among the female married distance education students, with the majority having intentions of quitting their studies. The stressors identified ranged from personal (i.e., work and family demands) to institutional ones (i.e., academic load, unresolved complaints and high financial demands from the programme).CONCLUSIONS:Key findings suggest that female married postgraduate distance education students perform multiple roles as full-time employees with family and academic demands that can negatively impact their health and academic work. Implications and recommendations of the findings are discussed.

IntroductionThis study investigates the multifaceted nature of motor learning in a complex bimanual task by examining the interplay between mental representation structures, biomechanics, tactile pressure, and performance. We developed a novel maze game requiring participants to maneuver a rolling sphere through a maze, exemplifying complex sequential coordination of vision and haptic control using both hands. A key component of this study is the introduction of cognitive primitives, fundamental units of cognitive and motor actions that represent specific movement patterns and strategies.MethodsParticipants were divided into two groups based on initial performance: poor performers (PPG) and good performers (GPG). The experimental setup employed motion capture and innovative tactile sensors to capture a detailed multimodal picture of the interaction process. Our primary aims were to (1) assess the effects of daily practice on task performance, biomechanics, and tactile pressure, (2) examine the relationship between changes in mental representation structures and skill performance, and (3) explore the interplay between biomechanics, tactile pressure, and cognitive representation in motor learning.ResultsPerformance analysis showed that motor skills improved with practice, with the GPG outperforming the PPG in maze navigation efficiency. Biomechanical analysis revealed that the GPG demonstrated superior movement strategies, as indicated by higher peak velocities and fewer velocity peaks during task execution. Tactile feedback analysis showed that GPG participants applied more precise and focused pressure with their right-hand thumb, suggesting enhanced motor control. Cognitively, both groups refined their mental representation structures over time, but the GPG exhibited a more structured and sophisticated cognitive mapping of the task post-practice.DiscussionThe findings highlight the intertwined nature of biomechanical control, tactile feedback, and cognitive processing in motor skill acquisition. The results support established theories, such as the cognitive action architecture approach, emphasizing the role of mental representation in planning and executing motor actions. The integration of cognitive primitives in our analysis provides a theoretical framework that connects observable behaviors to underlying cognitive strategies, enhancing the understanding of motor learning across various contexts. Our study underscores the necessity of a holistic approach to motor learning research, recognizing the complex interaction between cognitive and motor processes in skill acquisition.

Teachers' Sense of Efficacy Scale (TSES), since its development, has gained much popularity because of its adequate psychometric properties. Yet, scholarly information on the soundness of this instrument in the African context has not been documented. Besides, the previous validation studies on the TSES have yielded mixed results with different factor structures, calling for further studies to test its utility and use across different cultures. The purpose of this study was to revalidate the TSES in Ghana using item response theory (IRT) complemented by factor analyses. Through a validation study approach, 693 basic school teachers were purposively sampled to participate in the research by responding to the Teacher Efficacy Scale. The between-item and within-item multidimensional IRT analyses combined with factor analysis were performed to understand how the items functioned with intentions to propose a well-fit instrument within the Ghanaian context. The outcome of this research revealed that the original TSES with a three-factor structure, 24 items measured on a 9-point scale did not provide an optimal measure of teachers' self-efficacy within the Ghanaian context. Rather, a three-structure scale with 18 items and a 6-point scale offered a maximal measure of teachers' self-efficacy. The practical implications of the findings are discussed. This study showed that the original TSES with a three-factor structure, 24 items measured on a 9-point scale did not provide an optimal measure of teachers' self-efficacy within the Ghanaian context.The present findings showed that a three-structure scale with 18 items and a 6-point scale offered a maximal measure of teachers' self-efficacy.Researchers are encouraged to use the modified TSES for future studies in Ghana to gauge teachers' self-efficacy toward curriculum implementation-related issues.