Summary Biodiversity monitoring is essential to inform the state of wildlife populations, and the impacts of environmental change, conservation intervention, and sustainable development policies and actions. We review the current state of bird monitoring across Africa using public questionnaires and semi-structured interviews. We received 87 questionnaire responses from 46 (of 54) countries and, additionally, 24 in-depth interviews were carried out. Multiple data collection methods were reported with total counts of individuals being most frequent, but all-species surveys, essential for quantifying ecosystem health, were restricted to bird atlases and Common Bird Monitoring (CBM) projects in Kenya, Uganda, and Botswana. Data collection relied largely on volunteers, but their motivation, recruitment, training, and retention is a continuing challenge. The most sustainable programmes were driven by clear policy objectives (e.g. waterbird monitoring under the Ramsar Convention or the Convention on the Conservation of Migratory Species), monitoring of individual groups (e.g. raptors, vultures, bustards), specific threatened species, and where clear national priorities had been set within government agencies. Use of monitoring data by governments in country biodiversity reports or National Biodiversity Species Action Plans (NBSAPs) varied widely and, for many countries, simply did not exist. A lack of skilled analysts and a comprehensive approach to data curation and ownership were identified as major limitations. A more strategic approach to funding and monitoring is needed, whereby smaller funders collaborate to reduce costs associated with applying for small amounts of money, and bird (and biodiversity) monitoring is explicitly integrated with sustainable development goals to exploit broader funding streams.

Lovebirds (genus Agapornis of family Psittaculidae) are a group of small, colourful parrot species endemic to sub-Saharan Africa and Madagascar, two-thirds of which are considered to have declining populations. Effective conservation efforts are hampered by a lack of information, particularly for species occurring in regions that have received little research attention. We combined expert knowledge with a review of the primary and grey literature to identify key knowledge gaps and priority conservation actions for this group of birds. Published studies were found to be largely concentrated on lovebird populations in southern Africa and, to a lesser extent in East Africa, and therefore mostly concern members of the 'white eye-ring' clade. Some species, such as the Black-collared Lovebird Agapornis swindernianus, remain very poorly studied, with a lack of even basic information such as georeferenced occurrence records. Several lovebird species were historically taken from the wild in large numbers for the international pet trade, leading to population declines. Although trade in wild lovebirds has been much reduced compared with historical levels, considerable numbers are still captured for local and international trade without any monitoring of the wild populations. Habitat change continues to drive declines in the population and range of some species, particularly those considered habitat specialists, such as the Nyasa Lovebird A. lilianae and the Black-cheeked Lovebird A. nigrigenis. However, changing habitat has also driven range expansions and, in combination with trade, has created numerous novel contact zones between formerly allopatric species, such as between Fischer's Lovebird A. fischeri and Yellow-collared Lovebird A. personatus. Hybridisation has been widely reported, particularly in East Africa, and studies on the implications of this for conservation, building on recent advances in genetic tools, are urgently needed. We call for more targeted research on lovebirds to inform assessments of their population trends, to understand the drivers of these trends, and to highlight opportunities to leverage existing data and new research tools to advance knowledge to support conservation in this group of birds.

Habitat availability for Afrotropical waterbirds is highly dynamic with unpredictable rainfall patterns and ephemeral wetlands resulting in diverse movement strategies among different species. Movement strategies among waterfowl encompass resident, regional and intercontinental migrants, but little quantitative information exists on their specific movement patterns. We studied the movement ecology of five Afrotropical waterfowl species marked with satellite transmitters in Malawi, Mali and Nigeria. Resident species, including White-faced Whistling Ducks Dendrocygna viduata, Fulvous Whistling Ducks Dendrocygna bicolor and Spur-winged Geese Plectropterus gambensis, remained sedentary during the rainy season and only flew limited distances during other months. In contrast, Knob-billed Ducks Sarkidiornis melanotos made short regional movements >50 km in all months and showed little site fidelity to previously used habitats in subsequent years. Garganey Anas quequedula followed an intercontinental strategy and made long-distance jumps across the Sahara and Mediterranean to their Eurasian breeding grounds. Most species flew farthest during the dry season, as mean daily movements varied from 1.5 to 14.2 km and was greatest in the winter months (January–March). Total distance moved varied from 9.5 km for White-faced Whistling Ducks (October–December) to 45.6 km for Knob-billed Ducks (April–June). Nomadic behaviour by Knob-billed Ducks was evidenced by long exploratory flights, but small mean daily movements suggested that they were relying on previous experience. Improving our understanding of these movement strategies increases our ability to assess connectivity of wetland resources that support waterfowl throughout their annual cycle and focuses conservation efforts on their most important habitats.

(2014). Birds in a Changing Environment: Report on the 13th Pan-African Ornithological Congress in Arusha, Tanzania. Ostrich: Vol. 85, No. 1, pp. iii-vi.

Despite considerable effort for surveillance of wild birds for avian influenza viruses (AIVs), empirical investigations of ecological drivers of AIV prevalence in wild birds are still scarce. Here we used a continental-scale dataset, collected in tropical wetlands of 15 African countries, to test the relative roles of a range of ecological factors on patterns of AIV prevalence in wildfowl. Seasonal and geographical variations in prevalence were positively related to the local density of the wildfowl community and to the wintering period of Eurasian migratory birds in Africa. The predominant influence of wildfowl density with no influence of climatic conditions suggests, in contrast to temperate regions, a predominant role for inter-individual transmission rather than transmission via long-lived virus persisting in the environment. Higher prevalences were found in Anas species than in non- Anas species even when we account for differences in their foraging behaviour (primarily dabbling or not) or their geographical origin (Eurasian or Afro-tropical), suggesting the existence of intrinsic differences between wildfowl taxonomic groups in receptivity to infection. Birds were found infected as often in oropharyngeal as in cloacal samples, but rarely for both types of sample concurrently, indicating that both respiratory and digestive tracts may be important for AIV replication.

Heterogeneity in the transmission rates of pathogens across hosts or environments may produce disease hotspots, which are defined as specific sites, times or species associations in which the infection rate is consistently elevated. Hotspots for avian influenza virus (AIV) in wild birds are largely unstudied and poorly understood. A striking feature is the existence of a unique but consistent AIV hotspot in shorebirds (Charadriiformes) associated with a single species at a specific location and time (ruddy turnstone Arenaria interpres at Delaware Bay, USA, in May). This unique case, though a valuable reference, limits our capacity to explore and understand the general properties of AIV hotspots in shorebirds. Unfortunately, relatively few shorebirds have been sampled outside Delaware Bay and they belong to only a few shorebird families; there also has been a lack of consistent oropharyngeal sampling as a complement to cloacal sampling. In this study we looked for AIV hotspots associated with other shorebird species and/or with some of the larger congregation sites of shorebirds in the old world. We assembled and analysed a regionally extensive dataset of AIV prevalence from 69 shorebird species sampled in 25 countries across Africa and Western Eurasia. Despite this diverse and extensive coverage we did not detect any new shorebird AIV hotspots. Neither large shorebird congregation sites nor the ruddy turnstone were consistently associated with AIV hotspots. We did, however, find a low but widespread circulation of AIV in shorebirds that contrast with the absence of AIV previously reported in shorebirds in Europe. A very high AIV antibody prevalence coupled to a low infection rate was found in both first-year and adult birds of two migratory sandpiper species, suggesting the potential existence of an AIV hotspot along their migratory flyway that is yet to be discovered.

We provide recommendations for implementing telemetry studies on waterfowl on the basis of our experience in a tracking study conducted in three countries of sub-Saharan Africa. The aim of the study was to document movements by duck species identified as priority candidates for the potential spread of avian influenza. Our study design included both captive and field test components on four wild duck species (Garganey, Comb Duck, White-faced Duck and Fulvous Duck). We used our location data to evaluate marking success and determine when signal loss occurred. The captive study of eight ducks marked with non-working transmitters in a zoo in Montpellier, France, prior to fieldwork showed no evidence of adverse effects, and the harness design appeared to work well. The field study in Malawi, Nigeria and Mali started in 2007 on 2 February, 6 February and 14 February, and ended on 22 November 2007 (288 d), 20 January 2010 (1 079 d), and 3 November 2008 (628 d), respectively. The field study indicated that 38 of 47 (81%) of the platform transmitter terminals (PTTs) kept transmitting after initial deployment, and the transmitters provided 15 576 locations. Signal loss during the field study was attributed to three main causes: PTT loss, PTT failure and mortality (natural, human-caused and PTT-related). The PTT signal quality varied by geographic region, and interference caused signal loss in the Mediterranean Sea region. We recommend careful attention at the beginning of the study to determine the optimum timing of transmitter deployment and the number of transmitters to be deployed per species. These sample sizes should be calculated by taking into account region-specific causes of signal loss to ensure research objectives are met. These recommendations should be useful for researchers undertaking a satellite tracking program, especially when working in remote areas of Africa where logistics are difficult or with poorly-known species.

Background: Virological, molecular and serological studies were carried out to determine the status of infections with avian influenza viruses (AIV) in different species of wild waterbirds in Iran during 2003-2007. Samples were collected from 1146 birds representing 45 different species with the majority of samples originating from ducks, coots and shorebirds. Samples originated from 6 different provinces representative for the 15 most important wintering sites of migratory waterbirds in Iran.Results: Overall, AIV were detected in approximately 3.4% of the samples. However, prevalence was higher (up to 8.3%) at selected locations and for certain species. No highly pathogenic avian influenza, including H5N1 was detected. A total of 35 AIVs were detected from cloacal or oropharyngeal swab samples. These positive samples originated mainly from Mallards and Common Teals. Of 711 serum samples tested for AIV antibodies, 345 (48.5%) were positive by using a nucleoprotein-specific competitive ELISA (NP-C-ELISA). Ducks including Mallard, Common Teal, Common Pochard, Northern Shoveler and Eurasian Wigeon revealed the highest antibody prevalence ranging from 44 to 75%.Conclusion: Results of these investigations provide important information about the prevalence of LPAIV in wild birds in Iran, especially wetlands around the Caspian Sea which represent an important wintering site for migratory water birds. Mallard and Common Teal exhibited the highest number of positives in virological and serological investigations: 43% and 26% virological positive cases and 24% and 46% serological positive reactions, respectively. These two species may play an important role in the ecology and perpetuation of influenza viruses in this region. In addition, it could be shown that both oropharyngeal and cloacal swab samples contribute to the detection of positive birds, and neither should be neglected.

The rapid spread of highly pathogenic avian influenza (H5N1) viruses over Asia, Europe and Africa, contemporary to outbreaks in migratory waterfowl, has questioned the potential for wild waterfowl to spread H5N1 viruses. While these viruses are still circulating over these regions, a number of recent experimental infection surveys have revealed that some wild waterfowl can excrete H5N1 virus for several days before or without exhibiting clinical signs. We here present the application of a large-scale satellite telemetry program to epidemiology. We evaluated the dispersive potential of H5N1 viruses by wild waterfowl through the analysis of the movement range and rate of satellite-tracked birds, in relation to the duration of potential asymptomatic viral shedding (DPAVS). Our review of all available inoculation surveys (120 birds from 15 wild waterfowl species) indicates that almost all infected birds show a period of asymptomatic viral shedding, ranging from 1 to 8 days. We compiled location data of more than 100 birds from more than 10 species of Anatidae we had equipped with PTTs in Africa and Asia. We then measured the magnitude, speed and frequency of bird movements during time frames corresponding to values of DPAVS. Our analysis confirms that wild waterfowl have the potential of being long-distance vectors of H5N1 viruses. Satellite-tracked birds were able to perform long-distance movements (up to 3000 km) during short periods compatible with DPAVS. However, their general dispersive potential was low. Long-distance dispersals (>100 km) were only occasional, with magnitudes no more than 1000 km for most ranging or migration movements, extensive distances being covered only when birds crossed large natural barriers. In addition, time between separate long-distance dispersals was generally longer than DPAVS, preventing birds from spreading viruses through successive long-distance flights. (Texte integral)

To the Editor: In 2005 and 2006, the highly pathogenic avian influenza (HPAI) virus subtype H5N1 rapidly spread from Asia through Europe, the Middle East, and Africa. Waterbirds are considered the natural reservoir of low pathogenic avian influenza viruses (1), but their potential role in the spread of HPAI (H5N1), along with legal and illegal poultry and wildlife trade (2), is yet to be clarified. The garganey (Anas querquedula) is the most numerous duck migrating between Eurasia and Africa: ≈2 million gather in the wetlands of Western Africa every northern winter (3). We report on a spatial correlation between the 2007 migration path of a garganey monitored through satellite telemetry and areas that had major HPAI (H5N1) outbreaks from 2005 through 2007. Seven garganeys were captured, sampled, and fitted with a 12-g satellite transmitter in northern Nigeria (Hadejia-Nguru Wetlands; 12°48′N; 10°44′E) in the period February 7–15, 2007. All cloacal and tracheal swabs tested negative for avian influenza virus by real-time reverse transcription–PCR analysis of the matrix gene. One second-year (>9-month-old) female garganey migrated from northern Nigeria to Russia in April–May 2007 (Appendix Figure), where she remained until the end of July. During this 6-week spring migration over the Sahara Desert, Mediterranean Sea, and Eastern Europe, this duck stopped at 3 main stopover sites in Crete, Turkey (Bosphorus region), and Romania (Danube River delta). The duck migrated back to the Danube delta in August, where it remained until November, when the signal was lost. Other garganeys we monitored stopped transmitting before initiating spring migration (n = 3) or remained in West Africa during spring and summer (n = 3), which suggests a stress linked to capture or constraint from the transmitter attachment. This transcontinental migration path connects several areas of past major HPAI (H5N1) outbreaks (Appendix Figure). The wintering area in Nigeria where this duck was caught and remained for 8 weeks before spring migration is located where a large number of outbreaks have occurred repeatedly since February 2006 (the closest being 30 km away). This bird reached its breeding ground in Russia near Moscow and stayed for 2 months in an area that had several outbreaks in backyard poultry in February 2007 (the closest being 30 km away). Finally, the Danube delta, used as a resting ground for 3 months in late summer and autumn, is also an area with recurring outbreaks since October 2005 in wild and domestic birds, with the most recent case reported in November 2007 (the closest being 10 km away). The initial spread of HPAI virus (H5N1) from Eurasia to Africa occurred in autumn and winter 2005–06. The migratory movements we observed during spring and summer in this study were not temporally correlated with any reported HPAI (H5N1) outbreak, either in sequence or period; hence, they should not be interpreted as evidence of the role of wild bird in expansions of the virus. During spring migration from Nigeria to Russia, the garganey stopped several days in wetlands situated close to areas of past outbreaks in the Danube delta (4 days at a distance of 1–4 km from October 2005 outbreaks) and Lake Kus, Turkey (8 days at a distance of 10–30 km from October 2005 outbreaks). The occurrence of past outbreaks indicates that the duck used wetlands favorable to HPAI virus (H5N1) transmission as stopover sites. The relatively long stopover periods enabled prolonged contact of migratory ducks with local domestic and wild bird populations or through shared water, thus prolonging the potential for virus transmission. Considering the persistence of infectivity of HPAI virus (H5N1) in aquatic habitats (4), the number of migratory ducks congregating at stopover sites from various geographic origins and destinations, and the asynchronous timing of the arrival and departure of migratory ducks (5), we believe that these sites may provide locations for disease transmission and possible spread upon movement of wild birds. The satellite-fitted female garganey covered distances between stopover sites of >2,000 km in <2 days, traveling at an estimated speed of 60 km/h. This large-scale movement in a short period, coupled with experimental exposure trials demonstrating viral shedding of up to 4 days in ducks with no clinical signs of infection (6), is consistent with potential viral transmission over great distances. These facts illustrate how a pathogen such as HPAI virus (H5N1) can potentially be transported rapidly by migratory birds across continents. However, the physiologic impact of an HPAI (H5N1) infection on the ability of birds to migrate long distances is still unknown (7) and to date, most empirical evidence suggests that wild birds have only moved short distances (a few hundred kilometers) likely carrying HPAI virus (H5N1) (8). Despite extensive global wildlife surveillance efforts and with the exception of a few reported cases of HPAI (H5N1) infection in apparently healthy wild ducks (9,10), evidence of wild bird involvement in the spread of HPAI virus (H5N1) over long distances is still lacking.

The potential existence of a wild bird reservoir for highly pathogenic avian influenza (HPAI) has been recently questioned by the spread and the persisting circulation of H5N1 HPAI viruses, responsible for concurrent outbreaks in migratory and domestic birds over Asia, Europe, and Africa. During a large-scale surveillance programme over Eastern Europe, the Middle East, and Africa, we detected avian influenza viruses of H5N2 subtype with a highly pathogenic (HP) viral genotype in healthy birds of two wild waterfowl species sampled in Nigeria. We monitored the survival and regional movements of one of the infected birds through satellite telemetry, providing a rare evidence of a non-lethal natural infection by an HP viral genotype in wild birds. Phylogenetic analysis of the H5N2 viruses revealed close genetic relationships with H5 viruses of low pathogenicity circulating in Eurasian wild and domestic ducks. In addition, genetic analysis did not reveal known gallinaceous poultry adaptive mutations, suggesting that the emergence of HP strains could have taken place in either wild or domestic ducks or in non-gallinaceous species. The presence of coexisting but genetically distinguishable avian influenza viruses with an HP viral genotype in two cohabiting species of wild waterfowl, with evidence of non-lethal infection at least in one species and without evidence of prior extensive circulation of the virus in domestic poultry, suggest that some strains with a potential high pathogenicity for poultry could be maintained in a community of wild waterfowl.

In the context of highly pathogenic avian influenza (HPAI) emergence in Africa in early 2006, it has become necessary to increase the surveillance level in this region, including surveillance of wild birds suspected to play a role in transmission. A first surveillance campaign was launched in Africa in early 2006, within the framework of a regional Technical Cooperation Programme (TCP) of FAO. It showed a prevalence of 3.3% of LPAI in wild birds out of 5288 samples analysed manually. Here, we present our strategy for the development of a high throughput diagnostic line of AIV. Field collection of samples was carried out by Wetlands International and CIRAD. Cloacal and tracheal swabs collected from wild birds were immediately placed in conservative medium and sent to Montpellier where an automation workstation (Biomek FxP, Beckman) was used for RNA extraction. Specific quantitative RT-PCR were then run to identify influenza A virus positive samples and H5 or H7 subtypes. These subtypes could be further characterized by sequencing of the hemagglutinin cleavage site and by virus isolation. This strategy was successfully applied to wild bird surveillance in Africa and Eastern Europe during winter 2006/2007, within the framework of a second regional TCP of FAO.

Waterbirds in Africa have developed diverse strategies to exploit the wide variety of African wetlands. Whilst some species are largely sedentary, especially those in relatively static tropical climates, most demonstrate movements in response to changing seasons and environmental conditions. The onset of rain is an important trigger for migration: some waterbirds are harbingers of the rainy season, whilst others follow in the wake of rain. However, levels and timing of rain can be unpredictable and rain may not fall at all some years. When rain falls in arid and semi-arid areas, productive temporary wetlands can appear rapidly and attract large numbers of waterbirds, many of which are partially nomadic. This unpredictability presents difficult management scenarios. Overall, waterbird movements within Africa are poorly understood, which limits our abilities to conserve waterbirds in Africa and to implement the African-Eurasian Migratory Waterbird Agreement. It will take major resources and many years before we have clear pictures of waterbird movements within Africa. Influencing factors such as climate change and wetland degradation may well lead to further changes in migratory patterns. Nevertheless, conservation measures are required immediately, especially for declining species.