Scholars have posed several explanations for the limited progress in improving reading comprehension outcomes for students with reading difficulties (RD), including inadequate measurement, the complex nature of reading comprehension, underdeveloped vocabulary and background knowledge, and the lack of theory-informed instruction. We provide another possible explanation: the lack of aligned reading practices across settings. This article describes an approach to aligning reading comprehension practices (e.g., building background knowledge, explicit vocabulary instruction, generating main idea statements) across tiers (i.e., core and intervention), which includes using the same strategies, instructional language, and pacing. This alignment supports students with RD to engage in intentional practice opportunities across reading experiences, thereby supporting generalization, skill transfer, and successful learning from text. We describe prior research on aligning reading comprehension instruction and provide a detailed example of this alignment from Project ALIGN. We conclude by providing considerations for future research and implications for educators.

Integrating spelling with word reading instruction is commonly recommended. However, few studies have determined the unique effect of spelling activities on word reading skills for students with reading difficulties. Considering the limited time available for intervention and the fact that several words can be read in the time it takes to spell one, additional research is needed to optimize intervention time. We randomly assigned 68 students with significant word-reading difficulties in Grades 2 through 4 to one of two intervention conditions in which decoding instruction and practice were identical, but in one condition, students also practiced spelling the words (with feedback). While controlling for pretest scores and clustering, group comparisons at post-test indicated statistically significant differences favoring the Decoding + Spelling condition on silent word recognition (g = 0.36) and handwriting fluency (g = 0.70). Non-statistically significant effects favored the Decoding + Spelling condition on word reading efficiency (g = 0.14) and oral reading fluency at students’ grade level (g = 0.17). Effect sizes were small to negligible on proximal measures of word reading, spelling, letter combinations targeted in the intervention, and a third-grade passage of oral reading fluency. Non-significant effects favored the decoding-only condition on norm-referenced silent sentence verification fluency (g = − 0.16). Results offer some support for integrating spelling within decoding intervention, but the modest effects suggest that the time needed to include spelling should be considered carefully.

High-quality feedback is a powerful tool to support student learning with benefits for both those who receive and provide feedback. This study investigates the frequency and type of feedback fourth- and fifth-grade students used when delivering Sound Partners lessons to a younger peer. Results indicate that student tutors were successful in providing responsive academic and behavioral feedback for their younger tutee, with more than 850 instances of feedback identified across 58 audio recordings. The most common types of feedback tutors provided included praise and corrective academic feedback.

Students in grades 2 through 4 with significant word reading difficulties were randomly assigned to one of two 10-week interventions. In the Dual Treatment condition, decoding instruction emphasized regularity in spelling-sound correspondence, sound-by-sound decoding, and separately taught high-frequency words on a whole-word basis. In the Integrated condition, decoding instruction interleaved regularity and variability in spelling-sound correspondence, targeted larger letter units, and aligned high-frequency word instruction with decoding. At posttest, statistically significant differences favored the Integrated condition on standardized word reading efficiency (g = 0.37), silent word identification fluency (g = 0.41), and an intervention-aligned list of words not targeted in either condition (g = 0.26). Although not statistically significant, effect sizes also favored the Integrated condition on standardized sentence reading efficiency (g = 0.25), intervention-aligned letter-sound correspondence (g = 0.24), and other word lists taught or not taught in both conditions (gs = 0.12 to 0.21). A nonstatistically significant effect favored the Dual Treatment condition on intervention-aligned correct letter sequences spelling (g = -0.19), and null effects were observed on a standardized oral reading fluency (g = 0.04) and intervention-aligned whole word spelling (g = 0.02). Supported exposure to greater variability in spelling-sound correspondence may improve generalized word reading skills.

Interventions for individuals with specific learning disabilities (SLD) largely focus on performance within a single performance domain (e.g., reading). However, it is more the rule than the exception that individuals with SLD will experience difficulties that span multiple domains (e.g., reading and mathematics), and that co-occur with other disorders (e.g., attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder). In this article, we discuss what has been learned about supporting children and adolescents with SLD affecting multiple performance domains (i.e., reading and mathematics), and with common co-occurring difficulties with attention and anxiety. We also identify opportunities for future research for students with disabilities in math and reading and/or other disorders, e.g., attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder. IMPACT: It is common for children and adolescents with specific learning disabilities in reading to present with co-occurring difficulties with mathematics, attention, and anxiety. Compared to children and adolescents whose difficulties are isolated to reading, those with co-occurring difficulties with mathematics, attention, and anxiety often present with more pronounced difficulties in each affected domain. Combined interventions (e.g., reading instruction and anxiety management) show promise for addressing co-occurring learning difficulties. Further research is needed to examine the efficacy and feasibility of interventions for children and adolescents with co-occurring difficulties.

Little is known about how components of working memory (i.e., passive resonance of information in working memory, limited capacity working memory, and suppression of irrelevant information from working memory) impact near and far inferencing among adolescent readers. Using path analyses, the current study evaluated the relations of near and far inferencing, vocabulary, general knowledge, strategy use, and word reading efficiency as well as components of working memory among 1,085 students in Grades 7-12. Results indicated that near inferencing has the largest direct effect on far inferencing. Further, in a model that also included direct and indirect effects of cognitive processes on far inferences, results suggested that working memory (β = .08, p = .02), suppression (β = .07, p =.03), near inferencing (β = .25, p < .001) and vocabulary (β = .18, p < .001) had significant direct effects on far inferencing; whereas suppression (β = .13, p < .001), passive resonance in memory (β = .12, p <.001), background knowledge (β = .12, p = .005), and vocabulary β = .27, p < .001) had significant direct effects on near inferencing. In sum, results suggest that cognitive processes impact inferencing among adolescents.

This paper summarizes three theoretically related experimental pilot studies conducted in developing a new intervention for students with word reading difficulties. Each independent experiment tested instructional elements influenced by perspectives on lexical quality, connectionism, and statistical learning. Intervention components that showed promise moved on to become part of a base program tested in a subsequent study. In each study, students in grades 2-4 with low word reading skills were randomly assigned to one of two intervention conditions. Researcher-supported tutors provided small-group instruction five days per week over ten weeks at under 25 min per session. Treatment fidelity exceeded 90% in each experimental study. Standardized and researcher-developed measures of word and text reading were administered pretest and posttest. Although few statistical differences were observed, several educationally meaningful effect sizes were observed between groups across each study. In Study 1, effect sizes favored a condition in which decoding instruction and practice included variability in spelling-sound correspondence and larger letter units, compared to a condition in which standard spelling-sound pronunciations and sound-by-sound decoding were emphasized. In Study 2, effect sizes favored a condition in which a spelling activity was embedded in decoding instruction compared to identical decoding instruction without spelling. In Study 3, contrary to our expectations, embedding semantic information within a decoding and spelling program was less effective than the same instruction without semantic information. We discuss the results related to innovations to improve generalized word reading skills and our next steps that involve a randomized controlled trial and further intervention development.

The amount of time students with learning disabilities (LD) spend in general education classes has steadily increased over the past half century. This article addresses the need to investigate the impact of class-wide instructional approaches for students with and without LD in general education settings. We describe the process of developing and testing two class-wide, inclusive instructional programs that have yielded meaningful impacts on reading outcomes for students with and without disabilities and influenced educational theories. To advance educational psychology research, theory, and practice, we also present recommendations for conducting rigorous intervention research that can improve understanding of the best ways to support the reading development of students with LD in inclusive settings.

This study assessed the direct and - indirect effects of Supporting Knowledge in Language and Literacy (SKILL), a narrative intervention designed to improve oral and written narrative abilities in school-age children with or at risk for language and reading disorders. We conducted a multisite randomized controlled trial with 357 students in Grades 1-4 (S. Gillam, 2023). Multilevel models showed significant posttest and follow-up gains in oral narrative production (Hedges' g = 0.61 and 0.63) and generalization to written narrative skills (g = 0.34-0.35). To move beyond our main effects, we conducted moderated mediation analyses, which revealed that decoding skill significantly moderated both the direct and indirect effects of the SKILL intervention on reading comprehension. Students with low to average decoding abilities experienced the strongest indirect benefits of treatment on reading comprehension through gains in narrative ability. These findings provide empirical support for the Reading Is Language (RIL) model (Snowling & Hulme, 2025), which conceptualizes reading comprehension as a product of reciprocal interactions between decoding and language skills. Clinically, results suggest that oral language interventions like SKILL can support literacy development, particularly when combined with decoding instruction for children with weaker word recognition skills. The study highlights the potential of narrative-focused interventions to contribute meaningfully to literacy growth, offering both theoretical and practical guidance for educators and clinicians.

This pilot study investigated the efficacy of the Promoting Adolescent Comprehension Through Text (PACT) intervention, a social studies content knowledge and reading comprehension set of practices implemented with social studies classes including students with disabilities. Social studies general education teachers were provided with professional development on the PACT and differentiation practices to support students with disabilities in the general education classroom. A total of 28 teachers and 893 students (58 students with disabilities) participated in the study, across 20 rural and urban middle schools. Effect sizes (ES) ranged from 0.21 to 0.36 on measures of content knowledge acquisition and reading comprehension for students with disabilities in the treatment classes.

Over the past 30 years, we have made significant progress in screening, identifying, and treating young children with dyslexia. This progress stems from an improved understanding of phonemic awareness and the alphabetic principle, as well as the application of evidence-based instructional practices. Despite these advancements, interventions designed to improve reading outcomes beyond basic word reading in the early grades have often produced underwhelming results. This collection of papers is drawn from the Extraordinary Brain Symposium, a conference sponsored by The Dyslexia Foundation, which brought together a distinguished group of scientists to tackle two critical questions: (1) Why haven't interventions had the desired impact, especially beyond the early grades? and (2) What underlying assumptions need to be reexamined? The articles in this special issue make meaningful strides in addressing these challenges.

The purpose of this meta-analysis was to examine the effects of academic interventions on academic achievement and academic anxiety outcomes among secondary students. A systematic search yielded 19 studies comprising 2377 participants from research conducted between 1990 and 2020. Results revealed statistically significant differences favoring academic treatments over the control on academic outcomes (g = 0.66, SE = 0.17) but no statistically significant benefits for academic anxiety outcomes (g = -0.13, SE = 0.11). Moderator analysis revealed that the domain focus of the intervention (i.e., math, literacy, or science) did not explain the variance in student outcomes in either achievement or anxiety. The findings from this study corroborate previous research with elementary students, which found that academic interventions improve academic outcomes but do not substantially reduce academic anxiety. These findings suggested that academic anxiety may need to be addressed directly. However, the authors caution against drawing strong conclusions due to the limited research in this area.

Word reading disabilities (WRD) represent the most common disability in reading; however, questions remain regarding how to design instruction that results in significant, long-lasting effects on word reading outcomes for individuals who experience considerable difficulties that persist within and beyond primary grades. Two related studies examined effects of variations in targeted sublexical content on word reading efficiency of students in grades 2–4 with WRD. Study 1 addressed effects of instruction and practice targeting complex vs. simple letter units. Study 2 addressed effects of instruction and practice targeting multiple pronunciations of a letter unit vs. standard pronunciations alone. In Study 1, statistically significant differences at posttest on taught ( β =9.43, t(56)=2.32, p= 0.02; g=0.17, 95% CI [0.01, 0.33]) and untaught (β =8.44, t(56)=2.09, p= 0.04; g= 0.15, 95% CI [-0.01, 0.31]) words included in Aligned Word Lists favored the complex letter unit condition. In Study 2, statistically significant differences at posttest on taught words included in Aligned Word Lists favored the standard pronunciations condition (β = -4.15, t(60)= -2.04, p= 0.045; g= -0.18, 95% CI [-0.35, 0.004]) and group differences in average student performance were non-significant on untaught words (β = -0.22, t(60)= -0.06, p= 0.96;g= -0.01, 95% CI [-0.17, 0.17]). Given the modest sample sizes (N = 64) and amount of instruction provided in each study (i.e., 6 lessons), further research is warranted to better understand the impact of variations in targeted sublexical content on word reading outcomes for students with WRD in grades 2–4.

This article describes a curricular program for use in middle school social studies classrooms that supports the development of emergent bilinguals' language, literacy skills, and acquisition of content knowledge. The program leverages four supports found to be impactful for emergent bilinguals: 1) foregrounding content to increase students' readiness to learn language through content instruction; 2) making meaningful and relevant connections to students' cultural and linguistic backgrounds in complex disciplinary texts and activities; 3) engaging students in discussions and collaborations through heterogeneous teams that include students with a variety of linguistic proficiencies; and 4) using formative assessment to increase feedback and instructional responsiveness. The article presents illustrative examples of how these supports were embedded within a unit on ancient Greece and offers guidance on how middle school social studies teachers can incorporate supports in their units.

This study addressed the effects of Strategies for Teaching Reading, Information, and Vocabulary Effectively (STRIVE), a distributed professional development (PD) model designed to help teachers implement reading comprehension and vocabulary practices in fourth grade social studies classes. Schools (n = 81 schools, n = 235 teachers, n = 4,757 students) were randomly assigned to one of three conditions: researcher-supported PD, school-supported PD, or business as usual (typical instruction). Findings revealed significant effects for both treatment conditions when compared to the business-as-usual condition for content knowledge (g = 0.51 to 0.55), vocabulary learning (g = 0.49) and reading comprehension in content (g = 0.16 to 0.26). Statistically significant effects were not observed for the Gates MacGinitie Reading Comprehension (g = 0.04 to 0.06), however, the effect size for the Gates MacGinitie Vocabulary test was statistically significant for the school-supported PD group (g = 0.03 to 0.07). Findings establish the efficacy of the STRIVE PD model on student reading outcomes and supports the efficacy of using more sustainable methods of PD that feature school supported follow up PD. Fidelity did not mediate any outcomes.

PurposeAn inferential comprehension intervention addressing reading comprehension difficulties of middle schoolers was tested.MethodStudents in Grades 6 to 8 (n = 145; 53.8% female; 71% White; 24% Black) who failed their state literacy test, were randomly assigned to tutor-led, computerized, or business-as-usual [BaU] interventions.ResultsThe tutor-led intervention produced significant effects compared to BaU (g = .40) and computer-led (g = .30) on inference types instructed in the intervention. Students with adequate word reading in tutor-led gained more compared to BaU on WIAT-III Reading Comprehension. Boys gained more from tutor-led and BaU vs. computer-led on several measures.ConclusionInferential comprehension is malleable in middle school, but adequate word reading may be important. The effects for boys vs. girls suggest the need to understand intervention factors beyond the content and instructional procedures of interventions. Findings are discussed with reference to theories of inference and reading comprehension as well as the literature on technology-aided literacy interventions.

This study reports a secondary analysis from a quasi-experimental design study (N = 13 schools) to examine the effects of aligned Tier 1 (T1) and Tier 2 (T2) instruction for a subsample of fourth graders with inattention and reading difficulties. Of this sample (N = 63 students), 100% received free- or reduced-price lunch, 92% identified as Hispanic, and 22% received special education services. T1 instruction focused on implementing practices to support reading comprehension and content learning during social studies instruction. The aligned T2 intervention focused on remediating reading comprehension difficulties using the same evidence-based practices implemented in T1, thus supporting students with connecting learning and applying skills across settings. Schools were assigned to one of three conditions: (a) aligned T1-T2 instruction; (b) nonaligned T1-T2 instruction, in which T1 and T2 practices were not intentionally aligned; or (c) business-as-usual (BaU) T1 and T2 practices. No significant differences were detected between the nonaligned T1-T2 and BaU conditions on student outcomes. However, large, statistically significant effects were detected in favor of the aligned T1-T2 condition compared to BaU on measures of content knowledge (Unit 1 ES = 0.85; Unit 2 ES = 1.46; Unit 3 ES = 0.79), vocabulary (Unit 1 ES = 0.88; Unit 2 ES = 0.85), and content reading comprehension (ES = 0.79). The aligned T1-T2 condition also outperformed the nonaligned T1-T2 condition on content knowledge (Unit 2 ES = 1.35; Unit 3 ES = 0.56), vocabulary (Unit 1 ES = 0.82), and the content reading comprehension assessment (ES = 0.69). Various effect sizes were not different from zero after correcting for clustered data. Although the magnitude of the effect sizes suggested promise, additional research is needed to fully understand the effects of aligned instruction on the reading outcomes of students with inattention and reading difficulty.

PurposeThis study investigated the reading profiles of middle school Spanish-speaking emergent bilinguals (EBs) with significantly below grade level reading comprehension and whether these profiles varied in their reading comprehension performance over time.MethodLatent profile analyses were used to classify Grade 6 and 7 Hispanic EBs (n = 340; 39% female) into subgroups based on their word reading and vocabulary knowledge. Growth models were then fit within each profile to evaluate reading comprehension performance over time.ResultsAnalyses revealed four latent profiles emerged: (a) very low word reading and low vocabulary (10%), (b) low word reading and low vocabulary (71%), (c) average word reading and low vocabulary (16%), and (d) high word reading and low vocabulary (3%). Subgroups varied in their reading comprehension initially and over one year. Students in the subgroup marked by very low word reading and low vocabulary showed the lowest reading comprehension performance initially; however, they also showed the greatest growth over one year.ConclusionThese findings suggest that there is heterogeneity in the reading skill profiles of Spanish-speaking EBs with reading comprehension difficulties. They also underscore the prevalence of word reading difficulties among these students. These may be important factors to consider when developing interventions to prevent and remediate these difficulties.

This study examined the efficacy of a 2-year anxiety management intervention integrated with a reading intervention for struggling readers in upper-elementary grades on anxiety outcomes. The study randomly assigned 128 struggling readers to one of three conditions: (a) reading intervention with anxiety management intervention (RANX), (b) reading intervention with math fact practice, an attention control, (RMATH), and (c) business-as-usual comparison (BaU). Findings demonstrated promising results for students in the RANX condition, particularly compared with the BaU condition. However, findings were not always statistically significant suggesting the need for additional adequately powered trials. Secondary analyses among students beginning with average anxiety showed significant reductions in physical symptoms of anxiety at year 1 posttest favoring RANX over RMATH and BAU, as well as between RANX and BAU on reading anxiety at year 2 posttest. Among students beginning with elevated anxiety, significant reductions in social anxiety were found at year 2 posttest favoring RANX over RMATH and BaU. The findings underscore the promise of integrating anxiety management and reading interventions.

This paper provides an examination of the foundations, efficacy, and effectiveness of a set of practices associated with improved social studies and history learning and literacy outcomes for middle grade students, including students with varying learning needs (e.g., English learners, students with disabilities). This approach, Promoting Adolescents' Comprehension of Text, has been the focus of multiple randomized controlled trials, including a large-scale effectiveness study. This paper has two foci: (a) to examine the evidence for the PACT intervention across settings, populations, and time and (b) to consider the design of these studies and the unit of randomization (i.e., within teacher or across school) to better understand why the typically expected differential effect sizes between efficacy and effectiveness studies were not evident.