Women have made substantial gains in representation in some STEM fields (e.g., biology, chemistry, math) but not others (e.g., physics, computer science, engineering). Researchers have called for a STEM field-specific approach to investigate the persistent gender gap. While some studies indicate that males report higher self-efficacy than females, which may contribute to the persistent gender gap, other studies do not. The current research used Hunter-Schmidt meta-analysis to clarify the relationship between gender and self-efficacy in STEM fields where women are underrepresented compared to fields where representation has improved. A meta-analysis of 145 effects found gender differences in self-efficacy in all but one field (biology), but the magnitude of the difference was field-specific. In computer science and physics, two fields in which underrepresentation most strongly persists, there were greater gender differences in self-efficacy compared to the other fields. Findings also highlight participant educational stage as a potentially important factor in explaining heterogeneity of gender differences in self-efficacy within STEM fields and as an area for continued research.

This research investigates the extent of social media-based activism engagement among college students during the 2024 United States Presidential Election and explores its connection to students’ negative expectations for the future, specifically negative affect, depression symptoms, future anxiety, and self-efficacy. Previous research shows a complex dynamic where online political activism is linked to both higher psychological distress and a stronger sense of identity and purpose. To clarify these relationships, data were gathered from 189 university students about their willingness to engage in various forms of social media election activism. The findings revealed that students participated in election-related social media activism at relatively low levels. Analyses showed that engagement was not significantly related to negative affect or depressive symptoms. However, higher levels of engagement significantly predicted increased future anxiety and greater self-efficacy. These results imply that social media activism can serve both as a source of psychological stress (e.g., anxiety about the future) and a protective factor (e.g., increased self-efficacy). Additionally, political party affiliation did not significantly influence these relationships. This study offers valuable insights into how digital political involvement affects psychological well-being during times of political uncertainty.

In industrialized societies, emerging adulthood is a unique developmental stage between adolescence and adulthood (i.e., 18 to 29 years old), where individuals continuously encounter decisions that have important consequences that unfold over time (i.e., intertemporal decisions). The present review paper had three aims. The first aim was to provide a brief overview of emerging adulthood as a developmental stage and present a rationale for the importance of understanding the relationship between temporal self-perceptions and longitudinal outcomes in emerging adults. The second aim was to review evidence for a proposed model demonstrating the connection between three domains of temporal self-perceptions—future self-perceptions, longitudinal changes in future self-perceptions, and continuity between temporal selves (i.e., past-to-future)—, self-regulatory processes, and positive downstream consequences (e.g., psychological well-being and academic success) in emerging adults. Specifically, this targeted review sought to highlight research exploring the longitudinal processes in these relationships (e.g., changes in temporal self-perceptions over time and the relationship between temporal self-perceptions and longitudinal outcomes) and testing how these relationships function amidst a large-scale challenge (i.e., the COVID-19 pandemic). Given the heterogeneity of emerging adults as a demographic group, the third aim was to review research exploring demographic factors (e.g., gender and socioeconomic status) as a potential moderator of these relationships. The review provided support for the proposed model, highlighting the importance of perceptions of temporal selves in predicting a range of positive long-term outcomes, including self-regulatory processes, psychological well-being, and achievement. Additionally, the review demonstrated preliminary support for the significance of crucial demographic factors (e.g., gender and socioeconomic status) in understanding the nature of these relationships in emerging adults. Finally, the review suggests future directions to extend this growing literature and broaden the understanding of these relationships.

Psychologists and philosophers have argued that a consistent self-concept is essential for mental health and well-being. Differences in individuals’ backgrounds—specifically, their financial resources—may be instrumental to understanding these relationships. This research: (1) tested the continuity of self-perceptions, (2) investigated if perceptions of the past and future self predicted depression and well-being, and (3) explored whether continuity and its relationship to psychological outcomes varied across SES. The findings suggest: (1) moderate continuity; (2) perceptions of past and future were unique predictors of psychological outcomes; and (3) significant differences in continuity and how it predicted meaning-in-life by SES. The results extend the understanding of continuity and its significance for psychological outcomes while establishing the importance of individuals’ backgrounds in these relationships.

Previous research observed that people are different on social media than in physical life. Do people's subjective perceptions of themselves match these observations and does such subjective reality matter? Little research has examined whether people perceive themselves as the same between offline and social media contexts. The present research addressed whether people perceive themselves as the same on social media as offline (Studies 1 and 2), whether such perceptions are related positively vs. negatively to psychological well-being (Study 2), and these relations across generations (Study 2)—focusing on Generation Z (early adulthood) and Baby Boomers (late adulthood). Participants (total N = 1741) reported perceptions of themselves specified for offline and social media contexts (e.g., Big Five personality) and submitted records of their logged mobile phone use. Study 2 participants completed measures of psychological well-being (e.g., depression, life satisfaction). Across studies, participants perceived themselves as similar but not the same between offline and social media contexts. Baby Boomers perceived themselves as more similar between offline and social media than Generation Z, even when controlling for logged mobile phone use. Perceiving oneself as similar between social media and offline showed small, negative relationships with psychological well-being in Generation Z. Some young media users may be less depressed and more satisfied with life when they perceive themselves differently online. Findings are discussed in light of widespread concern with social media use and well-being in young people, as well as the implications for theories of self-consistency in daily life.

Social media were designed to connect people and support interpersonal relationships. However, whether social media use is linked to the connection between the self and others is unknown. The present research reviewed findings across psychology to address whether social media use is linked to defining and expressing the self as connected to others (i.e., interdependence) versus separate from others (i.e., independence) and whether this link appears in both individualistic and collectivistic cultures. Eligible studies reported an association between social media use (e.g., time spent, frequency of use) and a characteristic supportive of independence (e.g., narcissism, envy, self-enhancement). Meta-analytic results of 133 effect sizes across the reviewed studies show that social media use is linked to independence rather than interdependence. This relationship was more pronounced in collectivistic cultures than in individualistic cultures. These findings suggest that characteristics linked to social media use differ from what one might expect based on the design of social media to connect people.

Graduating during COVID-19, the Class of 2020 had difficulty pursuing their future goals. This research examined the likelihood of academic and career goal change early in the pandemic, disparities in persistence by socioeconomic status (SES), and how psychological resources mitigated goal change during the early stages of the pandemic. This 4-year study surveyed students in the Class of 2020 eight times from their first week in college (Fall 2016) to their last semester before graduation (Spring 2020; N = 115; 20% below middle SES, 80% middle SES or above). Even in the first weeks of COVID-19, a quarter of students changed goals. Lower SES students were less likely to persist in their post-graduation plans. Nevertheless, students who entered college with a vivid image of their future were more likely to have secured a graduate school or job prospect prior to COVID-19, and, in turn, were less likely to change goals.

Introduction: The COVID-19 pandemic changed lives overnight. With the pandemic's abrupt spread, graduating college students encountered widespread setbacks and challenges and were left with considerable uncertainty about how long the pandemic would last. This research explored the relationship between anticipation of the pandemic's length and longitudinal mental health, and the role of perception of the future self (i.e., future self-identification) as a potential protective and promotive factor for mental health during the pandemic. Methods: Graduating college seniors completed a two-part longitudinal study starting as the pandemic initially spread in the United States (March 26—April 10, 2020) and ending over half a year into the pandemic's course (October 20-January 27, 2021). Results: Findings suggested that higher initial symptoms of depression did not predict anticipating a longer pandemic, but anticipating a longer pandemic significantly predicted higher downstream depression symptoms over and above the initial symptoms. Additionally, greater future self-identification did not moderate the relationship between anticipated pandemic length and downstream depression (i.e., it was not a significant protective factor). However, having a positive view of the future self significantly predicted better downstream mental health over and above perceptions of pandemic length and initial depression symptoms. Positivity toward the future self may be an important promotive factor for mental health during the pandemic. Discussion: These results indicate that students who anticipate an extended crisis may need extra support, and perception of the future self as positive may be a valuable psychological resource.

This research followed students over their first 2 years of college. During this time, many students lose sight of their goals, leading to poor academic performance and leaving STEM and business majors. This research was the first to examine longitudinal changes in future vividness, how those changes impact academic success, and identify sex differences in those relationships. Students who started college with clear pictures of graduation and life after graduation, and those who gained clarity, were more likely to believe in their academic abilities, and, in turn, earn a higher cumulative GPA, and persist in STEM and business. Compared to men, women reported greater initial vividness in both domains. In vividness of graduation, women maintained their advantage with no sex differences in how vividness changed. However, men grew in vividness of life after graduation while women remained stagnant. These findings have implications for interventions to increase academic performance and persistence.

Prior studies found that the Big Five personality traits are significant predictors of social media outcomes, but they did not specify the situational context of the Big Five. The assumption is that people have the same personality on social media as offline. The present research addressed whether the Big Five are the same on social media as offline in terms of dimensional structure, mean levels, and predictive validity of social media outcomes. Across two samples, 943 college students completed measures of social media outcomes and two versions of the Big Five Inventory-2 adapted from Soto and John (2017), specifying offline and social media contexts. Findings revealed that all of the five dimensions emerged in both contexts, except that a few items might not apply well to the social media context. The mean levels of all five traits were significantly different between contexts, suggesting that the dimensional structure of the offline and social media Big Five are similar but peoples’ levels of expression of the Big Five are not the same between these contexts. Conscientiousness and extraversion were the least similar dimensions out of the five between the contexts. There were also differences in predictive validity between the offline and social media Big Five showing that heavier social media users are more open, conscientious, and extraverted on social media, whereas they are lower on these traits offline. Consequently, studying offline and social media contexts separately and jointly is critical for understanding how the Big Five predict social media outcomes.

Despite widespread concerns with social networking site (SNS) security, little research has determined why some are more concerned about SNS security than others. The present research proposes that people may derive their sense of security in SNSs from how safe they are and feel in their physical environment. Specifically, this research examined the relationships between participants' (N = 1262; 47.9% women) perceived neighborhood safety, perceived SNS security, and physical environments as defined by their neighborhood zip code. Findings showed that safety in one's physical environment predicted their perception of physical safety, which in turn predicted their perception of SNS security. These relations held even when holding annual household income constant. Together, these findings suggest that perception of safety in offline and online contexts may be closely intertwined. This research highlights the importance of considering features of the physical environment to understand individual differences in the perception of SNS security.

Past research has found notable gender differences in the Big Five personality and that these differences may arise from cultural and ecological contexts. Social media has become part of everyday life with people constantly switching between social media and offline contexts. The present research addressed whether gender differences in the Big Five are the same between offline and social media contexts and potential explanations behind these gender differences between contexts. Across two samples of college students (total N = 943), women reported higher levels of all the Big Five personality traits than men in both contexts, except there were no significant gender differences in offline extraversion. Gender differences in extraversion and agreeableness were more pronounced on social media compared to offline. Gender differences in neuroticism were less pronounced on social media compared to offline. The findings further suggested that the amount of time spent on social media, the number of connections on social media, and public self-consciousness may serve as potential explanations for why these gender differences in personality were not the same between the two contexts. The findings from this research inform how advances in digital technology transform gender differences across contexts.

This research addressed whether exposure to media, which increasingly portrays hacker characters across diverse media domains, may predict perceptions of others’ willingness to hack. Specifically, this study assessed how wishful identification with hacker characters may contribute to individuals’ perception of hacking behaviors. One-hundred forty-nine North American participants were recruited using MTurk.com. Participants reported (1) their exposure to general media and perceived identification with a fictional hacker character, and (2) their perceived risks, payoffs, and estimated willingness of others to engage in hacker behaviors regarding a specific call to hack. Additionally, this research examined differences in the effects of media exposure on hacking likelihood between two types of hacks: financial hacking attacks and hacktivism attacks. Results show (1) that perceived payoffs of hacking, but not perceived risks, predict individuals’ estimation of hacker behaviors, (2) a significant and positive indirect effect between media exposure and estimation of others’ willingness to hack passes through wishful identification and perceived payoffs of hacking attacks, and (3) no significant differences in the above relationships between the two types of hacks. Together, these findings highlight that media exposure may increase positive perceptions of hackers and in turn increase the perception of pervasiveness and legitimacy of engaging in hacking behaviors.

Relationship harmony focuses on the degree of harmony achieved in interpersonal relationships. This study is part of a program to establish the nomological network surrounding the construct of relationship harmony for the Chinese in preparation of further cross-cultural studies. Relationship harmony has been found to correlate with self-reported Openness, Emotional Stability, Helpfulness, Restraint, and Extroversion. Collective self-esteem was also positively correlated with relationship harmony, a result which suggests that it is related to the importance of participants’ ethnic identity and how they perceive others to rate their ethnic group. However, relationship harmony as initially assessed was correlated with only one dimension of personality as perceived by peers. This gap suggests that relationship harmony must also be measured in terms of specific relationships within one’s social circle and not merely by self-assessments. An alternate way to tap relationship harmony is thus proposed, and the possible linkages of this new measure are discussed.

People encounter intertemporal decisions every day and often engage in behaviors that are not good for their future. One factor that may explain these decisions is the perception of their distal future self. An emerging body of research suggests that individuals vary in how they perceive their future self and many perceive their future self as a different person. The present research aimed to (1) build on and extend Hershfield's et al. (2011) review of the existing literature and advance the conceptualization of the relationship between the current and future self, (2) extend and develop measures of this relationship, and (3) examine whether and how this relationship predicts intrapsychic and achievement outcomes. The results of the literature review suggested that prior research mostly focused on one or two of the following components: (a) perceived relatedness between the current and future self in terms of similarity and connectedness, (b) vividness in imagining the future self, and (c) degree of positivity felt toward the future self. Additionally, differences in how researchers have labeled the overall construct lead us to propose future self-identification as a new label for the three-component construct. Our research built on existing measures to test the validity of a three-component model of future self-identification. Across three samples of first-year undergraduates, this research established the psychometric properties of the measure, and then examined the relationships between the components and four outcome domains of interest: (1) psychological well-being (self-esteem, hope), (2) imagination of the future (visual imagery of future events, perceived temporal distance), (3) self-control, and (4) academic performance. We demonstrated that the three components of future self-identification were correlated but independent factors. Additionally, the three components differed in their unique relationships with the outcome domains, demonstrating the utility of measuring all three components of future self-identification when seeking to predict important psychological and behavioral outcomes.

Effective communication during disasters ensures that the public realizes the urgency of the crisis. The present research aims to identify factors that influence the perceived urgency and severity of a chronic water crisis in the Southwest United States that may lead to a future megadrought. Findings show knowledge about the interdependence of water and power infrastructures, vividness of the dreadful consequences of droughts, and time of crisis jointly increase perceived urgency and severity of the crisis, thus suggesting three directions for future research. First, knowledge-based interventions may be most effective when the knowledge presented is not already salient. Second, vividness of the crisis could increase the perceived urgency of a crisis. Third, design of future interventions should take into account individuals’ competing needs to satisfy desires for consuming resources versus conserving them; individuals may be less amenable to sustainability interventions when their desire for resources is intense.

This research explores the tradeoffs that decision makers are willing to make when implementing development initiatives to improve supplier sustainability performance. We employ a policy capturing methodology in which respondents are forced to choose between multiple potential sustainable supplier development initiatives. Data were collected from traditional and executive MBA students. The results suggest that when confronted with tradeoffs, decision makers value improvements in supplier cost savings and injury reduction equally, which was somewhat unexpected. Further, both improvements in supplier cost savings and injury reduction were valued over supplier emissions performance. Because we measure individual tradeoff preferences, multi-level regression analysis was used to better understand the impact of respondent value structure regarding sustainably developing suppliers. Our findings suggest a hierarchy of tradeoff preferences for decision makers as they pertain to sustainable supplier development. As the pressure to ensure supply chain sustainability increases, more firms will engage in sustainable supplier development. The outcomes of the choices they make when choosing between initiatives, and how managers make these choices, will be of increasing interest in both industry and academia. This research answers previous calls for further examination of decision maker tradeoff preferences in sustainable supply chain development.

As a result of increasing globalization, people are exposed to an even greater extent to other cultures, making it possible for individuals to assimilate mindsets that are typical of another culture. Recent work on extracultural cognition has shown that immediate cultural contexts exert powerful influences on cognition and behavioral patterns. This chapter reviews empirical support for extracultural cognition. Specifically, the chapter focuses on dialectical thinking and the well-established finding in the cultural literature that Westerners tend to anticipate linear continuity in the environment and East Asians anticipate change in existing patterns. Research shows, though, that cultural cues may shift these tendencies and—at least temporarily—alter cognitive mindsets to reflect the cognitions of another culture. After a review of the literature, the chapter addresses the implications of extracultural cognition for understanding the influence of dialectical thinking on judgment and decision-making.

As a result of increasing globalization, people are exposed to an even greater extent to other cultures, making it possible for individuals to assimilate mindsets that are typical of another culture. Recent work on extracultural cognition has shown that immediate cultural contexts exert powerful influences on cognition and behavioral patterns. This chapter reviews empirical support for extracultural cognition. Specifically, the chapter focuses on dialectical thinking and the well-established finding in the cultural literature that Westerners tend to anticipate linear continuity in the environment and East Asians anticipate change in existing patterns. Research shows, though, that cultural cues may shift these tendencies and— at least temporarily—alter cognitive mindsets to reflect the cognitions of another culture. After a review of the literature, the chapter addresses the implications of extracultural cognition for understanding the influence of dialectical thinking on judgment and decision-making.