Electric and magnetic fields are essential for the precise description of physical phenomena in nature. Accurately visualizing their distribution within materials is critical for understanding fundamental properties and enabling advanced applications. However, traditional techniques for characterizing electric and magnetic fields in materials frequently suffer from poor sensitivity and resolution. In contrast, differential phase contrast scanning transmission electron microscopy (DPC-STEM) has proved to be a highly effective and robust technique for mapping these fields, offering both exceptional sensitivity and high spatial resolution, even down to the atomic level. This review systematically outlines the fundamental principles and recent progress in DPC-STEM, highlighting its unique capability for direct electric and magnetic field visualization. We further compare DPC-STEM with four-dimensional scanning transmission electron microscopy (4D-STEM) and discuss practical aspects of its experimental implementation. Finally, we conclude by addressing current challenges and future prospects in this rapidly advancing field.

Intensive research into atomically thin two-dimensional (2D) transition metal dichalcogenides (TMDs) has revealed remarkable physicochemical properties, positioning them as promising candidates for advanced functional electronic and optoelectronic devices beyond conventional silicon-based technologies. Beyond pristine monolayer TMDs with diverse elemental compositions, the development of compositionally tunable alloys, heterostructures, and superlattices composed of distinct TMDs has enabled the exploration of emergent physical phenomena and functionalities. However, the controllable synthesis of large-area, high-quality 2D TMDs with well-defined compositions and architectures remains a fundamental prerequisite for both basic research and practical applications. While mechanical exfoliation has been extensively adopted for constructing TMDs-based heterostructures and superlattices, it lacks scalability and structural precision. In contrast, chemical vapor deposition (CVD) has emerged as a versatile and scalable approach for synthesizing a broad spectrum of TMDs including monolayers, alloys, vertical/lateral heterostructures, and superlattices. This review provides a comprehensive and critical overview of recent progress in the CVD synthesis of 2D TMDs. Particular attention is given to nucleation and growth mechanisms, and the structural and functional diversity achieved through alloying and hetero-integration. Finally, we outline key challenges and promising directions for future research in this rapidly evolving field.

Supercapacitor diode (CAPode) is an emerging type of electrochemical logic device that integrates ions and electrons as the coinformation carriers, thus being a promising building block for constructing new-type iontronic circuits and achieving seamless brain-computer interaction. However, the lack of understanding on its basic process, i.e., nanoconfined ion transport, greatly blocks the further enhancement of its ion rectification capability and ion transport kinetics. Herein, on the basis of in-depth analysis of the host-guest interactions in the nanoconfined space, a nanoconfined water mediated strategy is proposed to manipulate the ion transport behaviors in typical layered materials, i.e., tungsten oxides (WO3·nH2O, n = 0, 1, 2). The results reveal that WO3·H2O presents an optimal ion rectification capability and superior ion transport kinetics, much outperforming those of WO3·2H2O or WO3 with more or less structural water. Consequently, the WO3·H2O-based CAPode delivers a record-high rectification ratio of 253, an ultrahigh response frequency of 549 Hz, and an excellent cycling stability of up to 5000 cycles, enabling it to handle various complex ion/electron-coupling logic operations. More attractively, WO3·H2O is demonstrated to possess superior biocompatibility, endowing the as-built CAPode with great potential in the cutting-edge field of brain-computer interactions.

Non-lithium metal ion storage systems (NLMISs) and batteries have emerged as promising alternatives for next-generation energy storage, with the solid electrolyte interphase (SEI) playing a pivotal role in determining their electrochemical performance and long-term stability. This review systematically examines the applications and evolving trends of NLMISs, with a focus on sodium (Na), potassium (K), magnesium (Mg), and calcium (Ca)-based systems. The chemical composition, formation mechanisms, and key influencing factors of SEI layers in these systems are comprehensively analyzed. Furthermore, the critical functions of SEI films in enhancing ion transport, suppressing side reactions, and improving cycling stability are discussed. Strategies to optimize SEI stability, including advanced material design, interfacial engineering, and nanostructuring, are critically evaluated. Additionally, the impact of SEI properties on battery performance and summarize state-of-the-art characterization techniques for SEI investigation are summaried. Despite significant progress, challenges such as interfacial degradation and electrolyte compatibility remain unresolved. Finally, future research directions are outlined, highlighting the potential of SEI engineering in sustainable energy storage and the integration of novel materials and technologies for high-performance NLMISs. This review systematically analyzes the formation mechanisms and chemical composition of solid electrolyte interphase (SEI) layers in emerging non-lithium metal ion (Na, K, Mg, Ca) storage systems, highlighting their critical role in enabling long-term cycling stability and preventing electrolyte degradation. It presents practical stabilization strategies, including advanced electrolytes, nanostructured materials, and artificial interface engineering, that enhance battery performance while addressing key challenges such as interfacial degradation and electrolyte compatibility. While advanced electrolytes and artificial SEI designs promise superior battery performance, their synthesis often relies on energy-intensive processes or scarce elements; thus, a controversial yet necessary discussion arises as to whether a “green” battery technology can be truly sustainable if its manufacturing footprint outweighs the operational benefits in terms of cycle life and efficiency.

Abstract Photovoltaic‐storage‐charging microgrids (PSCMs) are being increasingly deployed in extreme environments, including desert, polar, coastal and high‐altitude regions, to provide a reliable and sustainable power supply. However, these harsh environments significantly accelerate the degradation of photovoltaic arrays, battery storage systems and electric vehicle charging infrastructures. Effectively managing PSCMs under these conditions requires energy management systems with control strategies that explicitly account for environment‐dependent degradation dynamics. This paper provides a comprehensive review of degradation‐aware energy management for PSCMs operating in extreme environments. First, extreme operating environments are classified using quantitative thresholds, and their specific degradation effects on PSCM components are systematically analysed. Next, degradation modelling approaches comprising analytical models, data‐driven approximations and physics‐informed enhancements are reviewed and compared. Current energy management strategies, ranging from model‐based methods to data‐driven reinforcement learning and hybrid architectures, are then examined. Finally, future research directions are outlined, focusing on generalizable multi‐stress degradation models, principled degradation‐aware control frameworks and comprehensive datasets and digital twin testbeds.

In state-of-the-art lithium-ion and lithium-metal batteries based on liquid electrolytes, interfacial protective layers with low electronic conductivity or even insulating characteristics are frequently used. These layers are supposed to suppress side reactions by limiting electron supply and reducing chemical reactivity at the electrode/electrolyte interface. Emerging findings now challenge this conventional wisdom, showing that appropriately high formation current and surface chemical reactivity can instead promote the rapid formation of a stable electrode/electrolyte interphase. Moreover, electron and lithium-ion transport are inherently coupled in electrochemical systems. Therefore, restricting electron supply fundamentally undermines electrochemical performance and diminishes the intended benefits of side reaction suppression. Recent studies increasingly underscore the effectiveness of mixed ionic-electronic conductors (MIECs) in interfacial modulations for these systems. In this review, these findings are summarized and the currently developed MIEC strategies are surveyed, covering both single-phase and heterogeneous composite MIECs and encompassing conventional methods alongside emerging strategies. This review aims to promote the applications of MIEC-based interfacial modifications to enhance battery performances, and to offer methodological insights into achieving mixed conductivity in interfacial engineering materials. Finally, the review concludes with a forward-looking perspective on key research directions for advancing MIEC-based interfacial design in next-generation battery systems.

Maghemite (gamma-Fe2O3) is an important magnetic material for wide utilization; however, it tends to transform into hematite (alpha-Fe2O3) under high temperature and humidity (HT and H) conditions. Here, we report that this phase transition can be completely suppressed by a reduced graphene oxide (rGO) hydrogel. Experiments demonstrate that gamma-Fe2O3 first dissolves in water and then recrystallizes into alpha-Fe2O3 in a hydrothermal autoclave at 180 degrees C (an HT and H environment). In contrast, after adding gamma-Fe2O3 to graphene oxide (GO) solution, its transformation into alpha-Fe2O3 is completely prevented during hydrothermal treatment up to 240 degrees C. The possible mechanism for this phase transition suppression is that the rGO hydrogel formed through hydrothermal reduction of GO fully encapsulates gamma-Fe2O3 to prevent its contact with water and subsequent dissolution. This work highlights the stabilizing role of the rGO hydrogel in improving the stability of metastable metal oxides under HT and H conditions.

Although octahydro-1,3,5,7-tetranitro-1,3,5,7-tetrazocine (HMX) plays a critical role in high-performance weapon systems, its microstructural behavior within the grains of solid propellants and PBXs has not been fully explored. This challenge arises from the difficulty of distinguishing HMX from other components during structural characterization. In this study, synchrotron X-ray tomography (SR-μCT) coupled with advanced image processing was employed to non-destructively characterize a cylindrical propellant grain composed of HMX, ammonium perchlorate (AP), aluminum (Al), and hydroxyl-terminated polybutadiene (HTPB) binder. The morphology, size, and distribution uniformity of HMX particles within the grain were successfully characterized. The calculated values from the 3D reconstruction closely matched the experimental results, confirming the accuracy of the proposed reconstruction methodology. The results also revealed that AP particles were more concentrated at the bottom of the propellant grain, likely due to gravitational settling during curing, while HMX and Al exhibited uniform distributions. However, at a finer scale, these particles were found to be unevenly distributed. This work pioneers the quantitative 3D characterization of HMX particulates within propellant grains, contributing to a better understanding of the microstructural behavior of solid particles within the grain.

Under hydrothermal conditions up to 240 °C, encapsulating γ-Fe 2 O 3 within a rGO hydrogel effectively suppresses its phase transformation to α-Fe 2 O 3 by blocking the water contact.

Lithium-ion capacitors are promising candidates in future large-scale energy storage, but their practical application has long been restricted by the performance mismatches between the battery-type anode and capacitive cathode, especially the unsatisfactory charge storage capacity of the capacitive cathode. Herein, we demonstrate a novel capacitive cathode that is prepared by electrochemically dissociating a graphene-based highly compact porous carbon via anion intercalation chemistry. Comprehensive in situ characterizations reveal that under substantial electromigration forces, the anions in electrolyte can effectively intercalate into and dissociate the tightly stacked graphene nanosheets, thereby boosting the charge storage capacity. Remarkably, when used as the capacitive cathode of the lithium-ion capacitor, the activated material delivers an ultrahigh specific capacity of 390 mA h g-1 or 585 mA h cm-3, much outperforming those of state-of-the-art capacitive materials and even some advanced battery-type materials, thus taking a significant step in developing high-capacity capacitive cathode for applicable lithium-ion capacitors.

Flexible conductive composites show potential in creating large-area stretchable sensors for applications in wearable technology, healthcare applications, and electronic skin. Incorporating metal nanoparticles in composites is a leading method to achieve high performance. However, there exists a trade-off between conductivity, stretchability, and the filler content. Here, we report a production method for silver flakes utilizing natural animal resin shellac, which is environmentally friendly, simple, and conducive to large-scale manufacturing. Benefit to the shellac's good film-forming properties and solubility, the flakes achieved more uniform thickness and smooth surface which are effective in building fast conductive paths. Silver flakes prepared by this method have a micron particle size ranging from 6.03 mu m to 13.25 mu m and a nanoscale thickness of less than 100 nm. When incorporated with PDMS, this material exhibits a significant electrical conductivity of 9353 S cm- 1 with a silver content of 49.1 wt %. This signifies a 21 % enhancement in electrical conductivity while reducing the silver content by 37 %. The composite material displays exceptional electrical conductivity and tensile sensitivity under mechanical deformation, with a gauge factor of 6.5. Additionally, an experiment was conducted to showcase the use of wearable sensors filled with the as-prepared silver flake (SSF) composites for real-time monitoring of physiological and activity signals across different body parts such as fingers, wrists, elbows, and throat. The use of silver flakes as conductive fillers shows significant promise in enhancing the performance of stretchable electronic devices. As conductive fillers, the silver flakes hold great potential in high performance stretchable electronic devices.

Alkaline all-iron flow batteries (AIFBs) are highly attractive for large-scale and long-term energy storage due to the abundant availability of raw materials, low cost, inherent safety, and decoupling of capacity and power. However, a stable iron anolyte is still being explored to address complex decomposition, ligand crossover, and energy density to improve battery performance. Herein, a promising metal-organic complex, Fe(NTHPS), consisting of FeCl3 and 3,3 ',3 ''-nitrilotris (2-hydroxypropane-1-sulfonate) (NTHPS), is specifically designed for alkaline all-iron flow battery. The NTHPS exhibits strong binding strength with iron ions, resulting in ultrahigh stability during the charge-discharge process. AIFB based on the [Fe(CN)6]4- catholyte and Fe(NTHPS) showcases an exceptionally high capacity retention of 97.8 % after 2000 cycles (0.0011 % per cycle), maintaining high coulombic efficiency near 100 %. Furthermore, with a solubility as high as 1.82 mol- 1, the Fe(NTHPS) anolyte demonstrates an ultra-high theoretical capacity of 47.23 Ah L- 1. This multiple negative charges ligand not only resolves existing barrier associated with AIFBs, but also provides valuable insight for their commercial application.

The fast development of artificial intelligence and brain-like computing poses new challenges to data processing and storage, escalating the demand for novel computing and memory devices. Herein, inspired by the selective ion-transport behavior of protein channels in biological synapses, a hydrous hexagonal tungsten trioxide (h-WO3)-based supercapacitor diode (CAPode) is designed and constructed. Benefiting from its hexagonal biomimetic proton channels and embedded single-file water chains, the hydrous h-WO3 exhibits outstanding selectivity and fast transport kinetics toward protons. As a consequence, the as-built CAPode delivers an ultrahigh rectification ratio of 242, an unprecedented response frequency of 1745 Hz, and an excellent cycling stability over 20 000 charging/discharging cycles. Combining these unparalleled performances together, the hydrous h-WO3-based CAPode is demonstrated to be very competent for basic logic operations even at a frequency of over kilohertz. More attractively, it also demonstrates superior writing-erasing capability and excellent long-term memory effect, validating great potential in the burgeoning computing-in-memory architecture and corresponding brain-like computing.

With the rapid development of digitization and the Internet of Things, higher requirements have been put forward for the portability, process structure, material cost, sensitivity, and durability of sensors. This study proposes an MXene/PVA flexible self powered similar cicada wing triboelectric pressure sensor (CTPS) based on the principles of frictional electrification and electrostatic induction. Explored the film-forming performance and response sensitivity under different mass ratios of MXene to PVA. The manufactured sensor uses MXene/ PVA composite material as the negative electrode material and graphene as the positive electrode material. In order to further improve the response sensitivity, the negative electrode material of the sensor is made into a similar cicada wing like biomimetic structure. The developed sensor can efficiently convert external mechanical forces and sound signals into electrical signal outputs. It achieves a sensitivity of 915.32 mV/N under a pressure of 0-5 N (frequency < 20 Hz), and a response sensitivity of 49.633 mV/Pa to 1 kHz sound waves. And the developed sensor is very lightweight, with a thin film thickness of only 30 um. At the same time, it can maintain constant voltage output in more than 6000 force cycle tests and 3 hours of sound cycle tests. The effectiveness and application potential of CTPS in the field of force and sound perception were verified through actual detection of sound signals from speakers.

Silicon (Si) has emerged as a highly promising anode material for next-generation lithium-ion batteries of high energy density. Nevertheless, its commercial adoption remains hindered by the disastrous huge volumetric evolution during repeated de-/lithiation cycles. Full coating of Si has proven effective in addressing these intrinsic limitations. Since coating properties directly govern electrochemical performance, optimizing coating characteristics must be pursued synergistically with Si structural engineering to finally realize commercially viable Si anodes. While previous reviews have predominantly examined coated electrode characteristics and coating techniques, a critical knowledge gap persists in systematically evaluating fundamental coating properties, particularly regarding electron/ion transport capability and mechanical/chemical/electrochemical durability. Addressing this gap is a key focus of this review. Another focus involves elucidating the key performance determinants of various types of coatings through rigorous examination of representative coated architectures, an aspect often overlooked in previous reviews on coated Si anodes. Finally, the review concludes with evidence-based insights and a forward-looking perspective outlining strategic research priorities to accelerate Si anode commercialization.

Emerging thermogalvanic systems can not only convert heat into electricity but also enable electrochemical refrigeration. However, their fundamental electrolytes meet challenges toward high cooling performance due to the absence of rational design principles. Developing thermogalvanic electrolytes with high-temperature coefficients and low heat capacity is the key to efficient electrochemical refrigeration. Here, we report an iron- based electrolyte design strategy by synergistic binary solvent and anion engineering, which rearranges the solvation shell of Fe2+/3+ ions to achieve a high-temperature coefficient of 3.73 mV K-1 with decreased heat capacity. The comprehensive analyses reveal that the weak Fe2+/3+-ClO4- interactions, accompanied by selective association between Fe2+ and nitrile solvents, fully enlarge the entropy change available for electrochemical refrigeration. As a result, the optimized electrolyte could potentially reach '70% improvement of cooling power, and a direct cooling of electrolyte '1.42 K was demonstrated with only 0.11 W cm-2 input, showing promise for practical electrochemical refrigeration.

Ion/electron‐coupling logic operation is recognized as the most promising approach to achieving in‐depth brain‐inspired computing, but the lack of high‐performance ion/electron‐coupling devices with high operating frequencies much restricts the fast development of this field. Accordingly, we herein report an orthorhombic niobium pentoxide (T‐Nb2O5) based lithium‐ion capacitor diode (CAPode) that possesses thoroughly improved performances to achieve multifrequency ion/electron‐coupling logic operations. Specifically, benefiting from the unique crystal structure and fast ion‐transport topology of T‐Nb2O5, the constructed CAPode exhibits a high response frequency of up to 122 Hz, over three orders of magnitude higher than those of the state‐of‐the‐art CAPodes. Meanwhile, the T‐Nb2O5 based CAPode delivers a record‐high rectification ratio of 108, a high specific capacity of 390 C g−1, a wide voltage window of −1.5~1.5 V, and a superior cycling stability over 2000 cycles. Combining these performance advantages, the T‐Nb2O5 based CAPode is demonstrated to be fully competent in typical AND and OR logic gates over a wide frequency range of 1~100 Hz, validating great potential in the burgeoning field of multifrequency ion/electron‐coupling logic operations.

Multifunctional coating strategy shows promising prospective in advancing Si-based anodes towards practical applications in Li-ion batteries. Dual coating of amorphous carbon and TiO2 shows demonstrable advantages owing to high elasticity of amorphous carbon and mechanical toughness of TiO2. However, for past design of Si@C@TiO2 composite electrode, wherein C and TiO2 are configured layer-by-layer, a long-standing problem exists as that a thin TiO2 coating is insufficient to stabilize the electrode's architecture while a thick one prevents the core active material of Si far from fully electrochemically utilization due to the too strong structural constraint effect. Herein, it presents that a facial heat treatment of Si@C@TiO2 with thick enough TiO2 can readily avert the problem. Such a strategy promotes the capacity utilization rate from 39% to 61% for the initial cycle and from 43% to 85% after 200 cycles. Model structure of C/TiO2 multilayer films is employed to reveal the role of the heat treatment. It finds that the heat treatment can transform a layer-by-layer structure of C@TiO2 into an interlaced structure of C/TiO2 which exhibits a dual advantage in withstanding mechanical strain and simultaneously promoting Li-ion storage and electron/Li-ion transport.

A straightforward solvothermal technique was used to create tin monosulfide (SnS) nanosheets that were reduced graphene oxide (RGO) bonded. On the folded RGO surface, it was discovered that the 2D SnS nanosheets had several layers that were evenly distributed. When exposed to visible light, a flexible photodetector made of PET substrate exhibits a 1.4 mA W−1 optical response, 3.5 × 107 Jones detection rate, and quick rise and fall times. (τ rise = τ decay = 0.08 s). When exposed to visible light, the methylene blue’s (MB) photocatalytic breakdown was used to test the photocatalytic performance of the synthesized SnS-RGO hybrid nanosheets. The fact that almost all of the MB dissolved in under one hour suggested that SnS-RGO nanosheets make promising high-performance photocatalysts.