Lunar far-side samples returned by the Chang’e-6 mission offer unprecedented insights into regolith properties within the South Pole–Aitken basin, essential for advancing lunar exploration and in situ resource utilization. This paper presents an integrated characterization framework combining high-resolution x-ray micro-computed tomography with semisupervised machine learning to reconstruct and analyze 349,740 individual particles at high throughput. Morphological analysis demonstrates that far-side regolith exhibits greater irregularity than previously characterized near-side samples, with a median particle diameter of 60.51 μm and a mean 3-dimensional sphericity of 0.74—values distinct from those reported for Apollo and Chang’e-5 materials. Discrete element method simulations incorporating these high-fidelity morphologies under representative lunar surface confining pressures (5 to 15 kPa) reveal a high internal friction angle of 47.96° and a cohesion of 1.08 kPa. These parameters exceed Surveyor mission estimates and align with the upper range of Apollo program values, indicating enhanced mechanical strength and cohesion in far-side regolith. The superior mechanical properties arise primarily from pronounced particle irregularity promoting strong mechanical interlocking, potentially augmented by cementation from abundant glassy agglutinate phases. These findings establish critical geotechnical benchmarks for lunar far-side materials, providing essential design parameters for future robotic and crewed missions, landing site selection, and infrastructure development.

The radiometric ages of the returned samples are the cornerstone of lunar cratering chronology models. However, all the previous samples were from the lunar nearside and the radiometric ages of those samples that can be associated with particular surfaces are <4.0 billion years. On 25 June 2024, Chang'e-6 successfully returned 1.935-kilogram samples from the lunar farside. The samples included local basalts with an age of 2807 ± 3 million years and the norites with an age of 4247 ± 5 million years likely corresponding to the age of the South Pole-Aitken basin. With these radiometric ages, we refined the lunar chronology function (CF) and verified that it is still consistent with a combination of an exponential decrease and a linear rate. We further derived the impacting rate and found it supports a smooth decay instead of abrupt changes of the impactor flux at early times. The refined lunar CF can be used to obtain more reliable ages for unsampled lunar areas and provide critical constraint for the lunar early impact history.

As the largest and oldest impact structure on the lunar farside, the formation of the South Pole-Aitken (SPA) basin has acted as a keystone process in lunar geological evolution. The SPA impact had thinned the crust and likely exposed the deep mantle materials through excavation, and formed an impact melt sheet via huge energy release. It is very necessary to conduct a detailed investigation on the distribution of the excavated components and constituents of the melt sheet, both of which are vital for understanding stratigraphic reconfiguration in the SPA-forming process and massive-impact-driven magmatic activity. This study spectrally investigated the mineralogical compositions of complex craters within the SPA basin, with the origin depth of each crater's central peak(s) being empirically estimated. A mineralogical distribution pattern of 7-15 km thick Fe/Ca-pyroxene-rich layer overlying a > 8 km layer enriched in Mg-pyroxene was observed in the central SPA. They were interpretated to be the differentiation products of the SPA melt sheet. The innermost anorthositic outcrops within the basin suggest the SPA transient crater may be at least similar to 810 km in diameter, indicating the Apollo region straddles the transient crater/melt sheet and modification/ejecta-deposition zone of the SPA. According to the reconfigured pre-Apollo stratigraphy and subsequent Apollo-forming process, the SPA ejecta, deposited in an inverted stratigraphic sequence upon emplacement, had been excavated through by the Apollo impact. The materials inside the Apollo after formation are actually melting mixtures of original crustal materials and differentiated SPA impact melt. However, the primordial anorthositic crustal materials, being deeply buried beneath the Apollo region during SPA formation, may have been assimilated and ultimately contributed to the formation of exotic high-Al basalts discovered in the Chang'e-6 samples. Since determining the age of the SPA basin and searching for the mantle-derived materials rank among the highest priorities in the lunar science, it is suggested that sampling from an elevated terrain within the extent of the SPA melt sheet in the basin's central region (e.g., Bhabha and Bose craters) and from the Th hotspots (e.g., Birkeland and Oresme V craters) or the uprange of the SPA basin (e.g., Dawson crater) may contribute to the settle of these two key questions.

Desorption electrospray ionization mass spectrometry imaging (DESI-MSI) is increasingly used for in situ chemical imaging of geological and planetary materials. However, quantitative comparisons across mineral and rock substrates are often complicated by matrix effects. For geological samples, these effects can arise not only from ion suppression caused by indigenous compounds but also from substrate-dependent variations in signal response imposed by the physical and chemical properties of mineral and rock surfaces. Here, we focus on the latter and systematically evaluate DESI matrix effects across 25 representative mineral and rock substrates by continuously infusing a six-component internal-standard mixture into the spray solvent and quantifying ion responses. The signals of different internal standards generally changed in the same direction across the substrate series. Signal intensities decrease with increasing surface roughness, indicating that physical sampling and transfer efficiency exert first-order control. At comparable roughness, different mineral classes still exhibit systematic response differences, consistent with additional crystal-chemical modulation through substrate-derived ionic backgrounds and thin-film interfacial chemistry. Substrates also systematically shift ion-form distributions among protonated and deprotonated species, as well as Na/K/Cl/formate adducts. Together, these findings demonstrate that substrate properties systematically shape DESI signal behavior, affecting both ion yield and ion-form partitioning, and provide a practical basis for mitigating matrix effects in geological and planetary DESI imaging, for example, through normalization using spray-added internal standards to reduce substrate-driven variability in analyte ion intensities.

Deciphering the composition and evolution of Earth's earliest continental crust commonly relies on reconstructing parental-melt rare earth element (REE) signatures from Hadean zircons. This approach is highly sensitive to zircon-melt REE partition coefficients (DREE). However, published zircon DREE values span orders of magnitude, leading to divergent and sometimes contradictory inferences about early crustal compositions. A major cause of this inconsistency is the lack of rigorous criteria for assessing the reliability of natural zircon DREE. Here, we compile a global dataset of natural zircon/bulk-rock pairs and adopt the lattice-strain-based delta K deviation index of Zou et al. (2019) to screen for robust DREE. Using the screened dataset, we establish recommended DREE envelopes for high-SiO2 and low-SiO2 natural systems. We evaluate recommended high-SiO2 envelope with DREE estimated from different zircon generations within the Acasta Gneiss Complex. The earliest igneous zircon population yields DREE values that fall largely within this envelope, supporting its applicability to ancient felsic zircon-forming systems. Finally, we apply the recommended high-SiO2 DREE envelope to reconstruct parentalmelt REE patterns for detrital zircons from Jack Hills, Green Sandstone Bed, and Singhbhum Craton. The resulting REE signatures are most consistent with incompatible-element-enriched granitoid compositions than with TTG, Acasta-like, or Icelandic analogues. This integrated mineral-physics and big-data workflow reduces longstanding uncertainty in zircon DREE selection and provides a broadly applicable strategy for constraining plausible partition coefficients across mineral-magma systems.

Rapid urbanization has intensified the urban heat island effect. Existing research has confirmed the association between urban form and land surface temperature, but the interaction and marginal effects of morphological factors on seasonal and diurnal variations of land surface temperature under different topographical conditions remain understudied. This study examines the seasonal and diurnal impacts of urban form on land surface temperature in cities with varying topographies, using Chengdu, Chongqing, and Guiyang as case studies. By integrating multi-source data to construct a multidimensional system and employing machine learning and Shapley additive explanation methods to analyze nonlinear relationships and interaction effects, the findings reveal，(1) Plains cities are moderated by built environment and landscape patterns, while mountainous cities are significantly influenced by topography and landscape patterns; plateau cities are more affected by topography and built environment; (2) Chengdu exhibits the strongest daytime heat island effect in summer, while Chongqing's high-temperature zones expand and contract seasonally. Guiyang maintains a south-hot, north-cool pattern during spring and summer daytime; (3) Among indicator interactions, the combination of high density of population and medium-to-high building density in summer leads to increased warming. This study provides support for developing targeted thermal environment control strategies and enhancing urban climate resilience in cities with diverse topographies.

The Chang'e-6 (CE-6) mission returned the first lunar farside samples from a basalt unit in the South Pole-Aitken Basin, which can provide novel insights into lunar volcanism. This study investigates the cooling history and source characteristics of the CE-6 low-Ti basalt fragments through the analysis of plagioclase crystal size distribution (CSD) and mineral geochemistry. Most samples indicate single-stage cooling, but a few show multi-stage cooling with microlites (acicular-radiate texture) and megacrysts (tabular-skeletal texture) forming at various rates. The cooling rate estimated by plagioclase CSD analysis ranges from 2.04 to 14.71 degrees C/h, which is slower than those of the Chang'e-5 and Luna-16 basalts, although comparable to the Apollo low-Ti basalts and lunar meteorites. The residence periods vary from 0.6 to 4.29 days, and thermodynamic modeling suggests average burial depths of 0.57 +/- 0.11 m within the lava flow. The equilibrium melt of plagioclase, as estimated by trace element modeling, exhibits low Ba/Sr and La/Sr ratios, indicating that the mantle source is nearly KREEP-free (<0.1%).

Why is Earth, among the eight planets in our solar system, the only habitable one? Over the 4.6-billion-year evolution of the solar system, why did Mars and Venus evolve so differently? Where did life originate, and how will Earth evolve in the future? These questions are not only central to planetary science in the 21st century but are also deeply connected to humanity’s fundamental understanding of its own existence and planetary habitability. Addressing these grand scientific challenges demands a systematic, multidimensional research approach. In the temporal dimension, we need to trace the early formation and evolution of terrestrial planets; in the spatial dimension, we need to analyze the layered structure of planets and the coupling between these layers; from a comparative perspective, we also need to explore the atmospheric characteristics of exoplanets and the influence of their host stars on habitability. Supported by the Chinese Academy of Sciences’ Strategic Priority Research Program on “Formation, Evolution, and Habitability of Terrestrial Planets,” we have taken planetary habitability as the main research theme and conducted systematic, in-depth studies on terrestrial planets by integrating multiple approaches, including extraterrestrial sample analysis, deep-space exploration data processing, and numerical and experimental simulation. This paper comprehensively summarizes the significant advancements made by the project over the past five years. It covers topics ranging from the early processes and environmental evolution of terrestrial planets to open planetary systems linked to the external space environment, and from Earth’s Moon to exoplanets. Key achievements include the first confirmation of a solid inner core on Mars, revealing its core-mantle differentiation under high-pressure and high-temperature conditions, and the discovery that the youngest lunar basalts originated from a non-KREEP, volatile-poor mantle source region, challenging the long-held traditional hypothesis that “volatile-rich material drives late-stage volcanism”—a textbook-level achievement. While summarizing the latest research advances, this paper also looks toward future directions. Significantly improving the capability for multi-layered, multi-parameter detection of planets, especially global planetary survey capabilities, and vigorously developing related techniques and research methods, particularly the application of cutting-edge technologies such as quantum technology and artificial intelligence, will be the key to achieving further major breakthroughs in planetary science. By sharing these research findings and insights, we aim to inspire more young people to pursue careers in planetary science—a field full of opportunities and challenges—thereby promoting the sustainable development of planetary science in China and over the world.

Lunar surface water primarily originates from solar wind irradiation, with diurnal variations in its content observed by orbital and ground-based remote sensing. However, low temporal resolution and the lack of accurate in-situ surface observations have limited understanding of the magnitude of these variations. Here, we report analysis results of the in-situ infrared spectra at the same location across different local times acquired by the Chang'e-6 lander. The in-situ spectra were calibrated for thermal contributions based on laboratory measurements conducted on the returned lunar soils, showing clear OH/H2O absorption signals. The OH/H2O contents achieved from the in-situ spectra exhibit significant temporal variations, with a notable decrease of 37%-58% from ∼10:00 a.m. to ∼11:03 a.m. local time. The discovery confirms not only the diurnal water variations detected by remote sensing but also extends such variations to the hourly range. The OH/H2O content decreasing rate is ∼8.4 ± 0.4 ppm/K in the high temperature range (349-358 K), faster than in the low temperature period (∼5.5 ppm/K for 309 K to 319 K). This indicates that temperature exerts a dominant control on the variation of OH/H2O content. Hydrogen exists in various forms in lunar soil grains and solar wind flux over a lunar day is insufficient to replenish the depleted OH/H2O. Therefore, the occurrence of OH/H2O, the only form detectable by infrared spectroscopy, is highly temperature dependent. The new discoveries shed light on the distribution and recycling of water on the lunar surface.

Asteroid impact, playing a key role in shaping the Moon, is a consequence of the orbital dynamical evolution of the Solar System. While the impact flux can be deduced from lunar craters, the impactor populations and their temporal variations remain poorly understood. We analyzed Fe-Ni metals in 40 impact clasts from the Chang'e-6 lunar soils and demonstrated that most of them are asteroidal remnants. The majority of these clasts (27 out of 40) originated from local basalt, where the asteroidal materials were accumulated after basaltic eruption at 2.8 billion years ago (Ga). The remaining 13 clasts are exotic feldspathic materials, delivered from the ancient lunar highlands, preserving asteroid remnants from similar to 4.3 Ga to the present. By classifying the asteroid impactors based on the Ni, Co, P, Ir, and Au contents of the metals, we identified distinct impactor populations for the two clast types. All carbonaceous chondrite metals are exclusively found in seven of the basaltic impact clasts, providing robust evidence for a late-stage bombardment by carbonaceous asteroids. The significant increase in carbonaceous impactors can be attributed to orbital dynamical events between 4.3 and 2.8 Ga, including giant planet migration, the Yarkovsky effect, or breakup of large carbonaceous asteroids. These findings, together with the exponentially declining impact flux, imply that only a small proportion of carbonaceous asteroids were delivered to the early Earth-Moon system, and provide further constraints on the dynamical evolution of the Solar System. Plain LanguageSummaryThe orbitaldynamicevolutionof the Solar Systemis criticalto Earth'shabitabilityand is largelyconstrainedby impactfluxesrecordedin lunar craters.However,the distributionofasteroidimpactortypes-anotherkey parameter-remainspoorlyunderstood.Here, we analyzedindividualiron-nickelmetal grainsin the Chang'e-6impactclasts from two regionsof differentages, to trace possiblechangesin the types of asteroidimpactors.The data reveala significantincreasein the relativeabundanceofcarbonaceousasteroidimpactorsbetween similar to 4.3 and similar to 2.8 Ga. These findingsshed light on the orbitaldynamicsof the early Solar System,and the late bombardmentof carbonaceousasteroidshas importantimplicationsforthe deliveryof water to the early Earth.

Zircon geochemistry plays a pivotal role in deciphering Earth's geological history, yet traditional threshold-based data screening faces a tradeoff dilemma: strict quality control discards substantial data quantity, while lenient criteria introduce uncertainties. This study presents a machine learning (ML) framework to address this quality/quantity quandary in zircon geochemistry. Precluding the use of greater quality and quantity of zircon geochemical data, "imperfect zircon" can be due to either being deficient in rare earth element (REE) data or defective in abnormal light REE data. By training a ML model on >25,000 high-quality zircons from the GEOROC database, we are able to develop a method for automatically restoring missing REE data in defective zircons, and abnormal LREE data in defective zircons with high accuracy, with the misfit of heavy REEs and Y medians are within +/- 0.5%. Compared to the "clean zircon" (La <0.1 ppm) criterion retaining only 34% of data, this approach utilizes 83% of zircons, thus providing a method for acquiring a new benchmark zircon geochemical dataset. Applying our workflow to global detrital zircon Eu/Eu* records, we show that the original dataset compared to the AI-revised dataset exhibits large uncertainties in Archean crustal thickness reconstruction. This inaccuracy can be traced mainly to small sample sizes (<50 grains) and low proportions of clean zircons (<30%), highlighting the improvement of the new benchmark dataset. This approach to addressing the quality/quantity quandary allows for more robust analyses across diverse geological contexts, and opens up new avenues for the application of ML in geoscience.

ABSTRACT Formation of the earliest evolved rocks on terrestrial planets remains poorly understood. The ancient Martian regolith breccia meteorite (MRB) contains feldspar-rich clasts, which could be evolved. Here, we report the first discovery of Martian sarcopside within an igneous clast (CS) of MRB. The mineral assemblage, the presence of sarcopside included in chlorapatite, and the equilibrium temperature of 774 ± 20 °C for plagioclase and alkali feldspar in clast CS collectively demonstrate that this clast crystallized from an evolved magma. A new U-Pb zircon age of 4525 ± 66 Ma places crystallization of these feldspar-bearing clasts within the first ∼100 Myr of Martian crust evolution. Furthermore, the equilibrium temperatures of all 16 two-feldspar-bearing clasts observed in small chips of MRB are < 1000 °C, and half are < 800 °C. The low equilibrium temperatures and mineral assemblages of different clasts are consistent with the interpretation that diverse evolved magmatism could have been present on early Mars. These ancient clasts provide a unique window into the timing and thermal regimes of evolved magmatism within the early Martian crust. More importantly, taken together with evidence from evolved lunar samples and asteroidal meteorites, the evolved lithologies on early Mars inferred from MRB indicate that evolved magmatism may have played an important role in the early Solar system.

China's Tianwen-2 mission plans to return samples from a small, rapidly spinning Earth quasi-satellite (469219) Kamo'oalewa. Previous studies linked Kamo'oalewa to lunar composition and origin. Here, we propose another scenario. We reanalyzed the reflectance spectrum of Kamo'oalewa and obtained an absorption band center at 1.001+-0.028 um (error is 1sigma), consistent with LL chondrites. We then conducted space weathering (SW) experiments on meteorites and found that highly space-weathered LL chondrite powder (but not slab) successfully reproduced the reflectance spectrum of Kamo'oalewa. We further traced the dynamical origin of Kamo'oalewa and found that it probably originated from the v6 secular resonance, and more specifically, the Flora family. Kamo'oalewa exhibits a similar composition to Itokawa and 7 objects in the Flora family, but with a higher degree of space weathering. We, therefore, proposed that Kamo'oalewa probably originated from the Flora family and developed an Itokawa-compositional, highly space-weathered, fine-regolith-dominated surface.

The Moon has preserved a unique record of organic matter delivered and reworked by asteroid and comet impacts. Here, we report diverse organic phases (particle-like, adhering-like, and inclusion-like) on the surfaces of lunar regolith grains returned by the Chang'e-5 and Chang'e-6 missions. They are predominantly amorphous carbon-like, containing N- and O-bearing functionalities and amide (─CONH─) linkages. The lunar organics show δD, δ13C, and δ15N values more negative than those of insoluble organic matter reported in carbonaceous chondrites and asteroids, consistent with impact-induced evaporation-condensation and surface reworking. The presence of solar wind implantation signatures in the organics supports long-term exposure on the lunar surface. Together, these findings suggest that the impacts both delivered and chemically processed organic matter on the lunar surface, generating N- and O-bearing functionalities.

Soluble organic matter (SOM) in meteorites has been suggested to play a significant role in the emergence of early life on Earth. However, the mechanisms that govern its evolution remain unclear. Here, we employed an integrated analytical approach encompassing desorption electrospray ionization high-resolution mass spectrometry (DESI-HRMS) imaging and ultra-high-performance liquid chromatography–high-resolution mass spectrometry (UHPLC-HRMS) to comprehensively analyze the composition, abundance, and spatial distribution of methanol-extractable SOM in nine meteorites with different alteration histories. The results show that SOM is preferentially associated with phyllosilicates but depleted in carbonate phases. A positive correlation is observed between the abundance of SOM and the degree of aqueous alteration in CM2 chondrites, although highly altered CI1 chondrites deviate from this trend. Additionally, the composition of SOM appears to be modulated by fluid redox conditions and heliocentric distance, as indicated by systematic differences in molecular features among chondrites from different parent bodies. The findings suggest that the evolution of SOM is governed by the coupled influences of the Solar System environment, parent-body processes, and microscale mineral phases, with aqueous alteration and fluid activity serving as the central driving forces.

Reconstructing temporal variations in crustal thickness is essential for understanding the tectonic evolution and metallogenic history of the North China Craton (NCC), but such constraints remain limited. The Huyu area, located in the northern NCC, exposes Late Triassic–Early Jurassic plutons and dikes that provide a valuable record of Mesozoic crustal evolution. Here, for the first time, we apply a recently developed zircon trace-element proxy integrating δEu and Yb/Sm ratios to reconstruct crustal-thickness variations, with the results independently evaluated using zircon crystallization temperatures and magmatic oxygen fugacity. The data define two magmatic episodes: Late Triassic (235.9–225.5 Ma) andEarly Jurassic (201.2–186.2 Ma). Late Triassic zircons record crystallization temperatures of 752–936 °C and oxygen fugacities of FMQ + 3.8 to + 5.3, whereas Early Jurassic zircons yield higher temperatures of 882–1011 °C and oxygen fugacities of FMQ + 3.8 to + 7.5. Zircon Hf isotopic compositions yield two-stage Hf model ages of 1.92–2.45 Ga, indicating that both magmatic suites were derived predominantly from the remelting of ancient continental crust. Late Triassic zircons are characterized by high δEu and low Yb/Sm ratios, whereas Early Jurassic zircons show the opposite pattern. These changes indicate a shift from high-pressure melting with garnet-bearing eclogitic residues at depths greater than 50 km to high-temperature, lower-pressure melting with plagioclase-rich granulitic residues at depths shallower than 40 km. This shift indicates that the crust in the northern NCC thinned from the Triassic to the Jurassic.

China's ongoing Tianwen-2 mission will return samples from a small, rapidly spinning Earth quasi-satellite (469219) Kamo'oalewa. Previous studies linked Kamo'oalewa to lunar composition and origin. Here, we propose another scenario. We reanalyze the reflectance spectrum of Kamo'oalewa and obtain an absorption band center at 1.001 ± 0.028 μm (error is 1σ), consistent with LL chondrites. We then conduct space weathering experiments on meteorites and find that highly space-weathered LL chondrite powder (but not slab) successfully reproduces the reflectance spectrum of Kamo'oalewa. We further trace the dynamical origin of Kamo'oalewa and find that it probably originated from the ν6 secular resonance, and more specifically, the Flora family. Kamo'oalewa exhibits a similar composition to Itokawa and 7 objects in the Flora family, but with a higher degree of space weathering. We, therefore, propose that Kamo'oalewa probably originated from the Flora family and developed an Itokawa-compositional, more space-weathered, fine-regolith-dominated surface.

Crustal density and porosity critically constrain the interior structure and thermal evolution of the Moon. However, global lateral variations and vertical stratification of crustal density and porosity remain poorly understood due to the lack of farside data. We measure the bulk density of the Chang'e-6 sample from the South Pole-Aitken (SPA) basin to plausibly explore variability in crustal properties for different lunar terrains. The Chang'e-6 sampling site exhibits a remarkably low surface porosity (similar to 47%), which is less porous than that of the nearside Procellarum KREEP Terrane (PKT). Grain density and surface porosity dichotomies are independently resolved through global compositional analysis. Physical compaction modeling reveals pronounced vertical stratification within the lunar crust and shows distinct discontinuities at different depths for future exploration. Compared to the nearside PKT, the SPA's low porosity may indicate a higher thermal conductivity. In light of these results, we proposed that the reduced insulating effect can lead to different thermal evolution across lunar terrains.

0 INTRODUCTION China's Chang'E-6 (CE6) mission successfully re-turned the first lunar farside sample from the Apollo Basin(41.625° S,153.978° W) within the South Pole-Aitken(SPA) Basin (Li et al.,2024). Remote sensing datasets and sample analyses indicate that the CE6 soil is a mix-ture of local mare basalts and exotic non-mare compo-nents (Li et al.,2024;Xu et al.,2024;Yue et al.,2024).These exotic non-mare components provide information about the unexplored regions beyond the CE6 landing site. Constraining their chemical compositions and prove-nances is important for expanding our knowledge of the lunar crust's diversity and evolution. Previous bulk and in-situ geochemical analyses of individual clasts have identi-fied a variety of norites in the CE6 soil (e.g.,Cao et al.,2025;Wang et al.,2025). These clasts have contrasting textures and compositions compared with the CE6 mare basalts (He et al.,2025;Zhang et al.,2025;Zhou Q et al.,2025;Cui et al.,2024),and they are considered to derive from multiple impact craters (Gao et al.,2025;Gou et al.,2024). However,these proposed source crater candi-dates have comparable mineral modal abundances and bulk chemical compositions estimated from spectral data-sets (Zhang et al.,2023). Therefore,it's difficult to pre-cisely constrain the source craters of non-mare clasts based on petrographic and geochemical features alone.

The physical properties of lunar soil are critical to understanding its evolution. However, the extent of the diversity among the global lunar soils remains unclear owing to limited sampling sites. Here we present a systematic investigation of the angle of repose (AOR), particle morphology and size distribution of soil obtained at the Chang'e-6 (CE-6) landing site, the first sample from the lunar farside. The CE-6 sample has a maximum static AOR of 52.9 degrees, which is substantially higher than those of the Chang'e-5 and Apollo soil simulants. In addition, a substantially larger dynamic AOR of 70.4 degrees is exhibited by the CE-6 sample compared with the CE-5 soil simulant, indicating a stronger cohesive property. This strong cohesive property can be attributed to the high plagioclase abundance and potentially strong space weathering at the sampling, especially impact reworking, which resulted in a fine particle size (D60 = 48.4 mu m) of the CE-6 sample with a high portion of the intermediate fraction (that is, 11-125 mu m) and a more complex morphology with a small mean sphericity (Smean = 0.58). These characteristics enhance the cohesiveness by strengthening electrostatic and van der Waals forces. This finding discloses key factors controlling the AOR and provides a fresh genesis perspective for understanding the physical properties of lunar soil, with implications for lunar evolution and future lunar resource utilization.