Insufficient hydration of periclase remains a challenge for magnesium oxysulfate (MOS) cement, as the continuous formation of brucite induces expansive stress and impairs dimensional stability. This study explored the feasibility of iron ion doping and the synergistic growth of 5 Mg(OH)2·MgSO4·7H2O (Phase 5·1·7) and iron hydroxides to enhance the mechanical properties and water resistance of MOS cement. Ferrous sulfate (FSS) was introduced as the Fe2+ (Fe(Ⅱ)) source, and its influences on microstructural evolution and strength development were investigated. Results show that FSS dissolved rapidly in the MgSO4 solution, releasing Fe(Ⅱ), of which 28–40 wt% was oxidized to Fe(Ⅲ) in the FSS-modified MOS system at 10 min. The subsequent conversion of Fe(Ⅱ/Ⅲ) into encapsulating Fe(Ⅱ/Ⅲ)-hydroxides accelerated the dissolution of periclase, providing extra MgOH+ nucleation sites for the crystallization of 3 Mg(OH)2·MgSO4·8H2O and Phase 5·1·7. These processes increased the hydration rate of MOS system, leading to reduced flowability and setting time of MOS slurry. In addition, a compatible co-existence between α-FeOOH and Phase 5·1·7 was observed. Fe(Ⅱ) doping reinforced the interlocked Phase 5·1·7 skeletal framework in the matrix, while in-situ formed flat rod-like α-FeOOH partially replaced Phase 5·1·7 whiskers in the pores. These combined effects optimized the pore structure and densified the matrix, enhancing the mechanical strength, volume stability, and water resistance of MOS cement. These results confirm that Fe(Ⅱ)-induced synergistic growth between Fe(Ⅱ)-doped Phase 5·1·7 and α-FeOOH could promote the sufficient hydration of periclase, providing a viable technical route for the performance optimization of MOS cement.

Magnesium oxysulfate (MOS) cement is prepared by calcining magnesite mixed with magnesium sulfate, water and a modifier. This material is a low-carbon cementitious material, exhibits lightweight, thermally insulated, has high strength properties, and is widely used in fireproofing and thermal insulation. However, traditional MOS cement exhibits poor resistance to NaCl erosion due to unstable hydration phase hydration products, while low-grade magnesite tailings are landfilled, creating a contradiction between resource underutilization and environmental pollution. This study proposes a composite regulation strategy that combines CO2-induced reaction with high calcium magnesite tailings. By developing a modified MOS cement system through CO2 and tailings utilization, systematically investigating the mechanisms of mechanical performance enhancement, microstructural evolution patterns, and phase transformation pathways, the following core results are obtained: a 20-minute carbonation treatment achieves a 14 d compressive strength of 64.4 MPa, a 16.9 % improvement over the control, whereas excessive treatment reduces the strength to 41.2 MPa due to HMC expansion. The strength retention coefficient of the carbonated samples is 0.77 after NaCl immersion for 28 d, outperforming the control by 57 %. The softening coefficient reaches 0.77, which is attributed to the greater stability of the CO3 2--substituted 517 phase (5Mg(OH)2 & sdot;MgSO4 & sdot;7 H2O). Carbonation forms a hydration/carbonation shell, transforming the 517 phase morphology from needle-like to petal-like with reduced porosity. The 10 min and 20 min carbonationtreated samples exhibited better volume stability. The carbonation process provides a theoretical framework for industrializing magnesia cementitious materials from high-calcium tailings.

Through-mask electrochemical micromachining (TMEMM) is a key technique for fabricating metal microstructures. However, the electric field edge effect, caused by geometric discontinuities at the edges of the photoresist patterns, is a long-standing challenge that significantly reduces machining uniformity. To address this issue, this paper introduces a regulating electrode into induction electrode TMEMM (IETMEMM) for the first time and proposes a novel method called regulating electrode-assisted IETMEMM (RE-IETMEMM). In RE-IETMEMM, the introduced regulating electrode forms an equipotential body parallel to the induction workpiece electrode. As a result, the electric field edge effect present in both TMEMM and IETMEMM is suppressed. To verify the practicality of this method, theoretical analysis, simulations, and experiments are conducted. Experimental results show that RE-IETMEMM achieves more uniform machining than both TMEMM and IETMEMM, which is consistent with the theoretical and simulation results. Compared with traditional TMEMM, RE-IETMEMM improves the depth uniformity of the microfluidic chip mold, rhombus array, and gear mold by 75.0 %, 66.6 %, and 71.9 %, respectively. Similarly, the line width uniformity of the rhombus array, gear mold, and perforated plate improves by 97.2 %, 92.9 %, and 73.3 %. The consistently high uniformity of these microstructures confirms that RE-IETMEMM is suitable for various types of microstructures. These findings demonstrate the strong potential of RE-IETMEMM for industrial applications.

The high solubility and harmful impurities in phosphogypsum (PG) hinder its application in cementitious materials, often leading to strength loss, poor water resistance, and environmental risks associated with leaching. To address these challenges, sodium carbonate (Na2CO3) was used as a mineralization agent in phosphogypsum-based cementitious materials. Mineralization reactions partially convert calcium sulfate into higher-strength calcium carbonate (CaCO3). Microstructural characterization revealed that the newly formed CaCO3 precipitates form a dense CaCO3-rich layer on the surfaces of calcium sulfate crystals, thereby improving the water resistance of the matrix. In addition, the resulting CaCO3-rich layer provides nucleation sites for the growth of ettringite (AFt) and calcium silicate hydrate (C-S-H) gel, thereby promoting microstructural interlocking and matrix densification. Ground granulated blast-furnace slag and ordinary Portland cement were incorporated to provide reactive silicate and aluminate phases, which synergistically promote the generation of additional C-S-H gel and densify the overall matrix together with mineralized PG. The optimal mixing formula of HPPM was determined by response surface methodology with a four-factor three-level Box–Behnken design. As a result of Na2CO3-assisted mineralization, the prepared high-performance PG-based cementitious material (HPPM) achieved a 28 d compressive strength of 38.33MPa, which is 73.12% higher than that of conventional untreated PG-based cementitious material. Furthermore, HPPM showed improved water resistance, with a softening coefficient of 0.92. The combined effects of a dense microstructure and intrinsic chemical immobilization significantly reduced the leaching levels of phosphorus, fluorine, and heavy metals to levels near the instrumental detection limits. The findings clarify the microstructural changes induced by mineralization and support the potential use of this approach for the large-scale and value-added recycling of industrial PG waste in building engineering.

The microscale effect has been widely employed in microelectromechanical systems (MEMS) devices due to its unique capabilities to enhance heat transfer efficiency, improve mechanical performance, and significantly amplify electrostatic forces. In this paper, the microscale strength effect of monocrystalline silicon is incorporated into the design of a differential pressure sensor for the first time. To improve the overload capacity of differential pressure sensors, this paper presents a sensor with a combined cross beam island with fillets (CBIF) ultra-thin membrane structure. Firstly, the relationship between membrane thickness and fracture strength is established through burst pressure tests. Secondly, the stress distribution, full-scale output, and maximum stress of the CBIF membrane are analyzed. The influence of structural dimensions on overload capacity is investigated, and the dimensions yielding the highest overload capacity are determined using a size optimization model that incorporates the microscale effect. Finally, the differential pressure sensors are fabricated using MEMS bulk micromachining technology. Measurement results reveal that the sensor with the CBIF membrane achieves a burst pressure of 10.5 ± 0.3 times FS and a sensitivity of 0.16 (mV/V/kPa) over a pressure range of 0-100 kPa. Compared with the conventional C-type membrane sensor, the sensor with the CBIF membrane increased the overload capacity by 66.4% under the same pressure range and sensitivity.

To improve the overload capacity of piezoresistive differential pressure sensors (PDPS), this paper presents a bidirectional high overload PDPS based on topology optimization. The topology optimization design goal of the PDPS is maximum stiffness, and the constraint condition is maximum stress. The stress distribution, full scale output, and maximum stress value of topology-optimized and C-type membranes are analyzed using the finiteelement method (FEM). FEM analyses demonstrated that, compared to conventional C-type membrane, a significant increase in overload capacity can be achieved by the proposed topology-optimized membrane. The silicon-based PDPS with bidirectional high overload is fabricated by microelectromechanical systems (MEMS) silicon technology. The measurement results reveal that the fabricated PDPS with the topology-optimized membrane has a burst pressure of 8.43 times the full scale and a sensitivity of 0.14 (mV/V/kPa) for a pressure range of 0-100 kPa. Compared to the conventional C-type membrane PDPS, the topology-optimized membrane increased the overload capacity by 33.6 % (the simulation result is 32.2 %) under the same full scale (100 kPa) and sensitivity (0.14 +/- 0.01 mV/V/kPa). These results suggest that the new topology-optimized membrane is suitable for MEMS pressure sensors used in bidirectional overload measurement environments.

Through-mask electrochemical micromachining (TMEMM) is a key technique for fabricating metal microstructures. However, manipulating the electric field to achieve various machining profiles remains a persistent challenge. To address this limitation, this paper introduces a sacrificial electrode into induction electrode TMEMM (IETMEMM) for the first time and proposes a novel method called sacrificial electrode-assisted IETMEMM (SE-IETMEMM). The sacrificial electrode is placed on the photoresist and is electrically connected to the workpiece through the regulating resistor. By adjusting the resistance, the potential of the sacrificial electrode is altered, enabling precise manipulation of the electric field distribution on the machined surface. Specifically, as the resistance increases, the electric field distribution evolves from center concentration to a uniform distribution and subsequently to edge concentration. This evolution is experimentally verified using the machining profiles of gear patterns. At a resistance of 0 Omega, the fabricated specimen exhibits a shallow edge and a deep center, indicating high localization with an etching factor (EF) of 10.3. At a resistance of 0.1 Omega, the profile becomes uniformly flat, with a non-uniformity (Nu) of only 12.2%. At a resistance of 1 Omega, the fabricated specimen exhibits an island-like profile. Compared with traditional TMEMM, SE-IETMEMM enhances localization by 836.4% at 0 Omega and improves uniformity by 78.1% at 0.1 Omega. Sacrificial electrode is introduced into TMEMM for the first time to manipulate the electric field.A SE-IETMEMM method is proposed to achieve various desired electric field distributions.SE-IETMEMM achieves significantly higher machining accuracy than traditional TMEMM.

Magnesium oxysulfate (MOS) cement is a cementitious material formed through the hydration reaction of light-burnt magnesia and magnesium sulfate solutions as the primary raw materials. During the construction process, harmful anions are easily introduced into MOS cement, affecting the formation of the main hydration product 517 phase. Therefore, to improve the adaptability of MOS cement to harmful anions and complex environmental changes, this study investigated the effects of adding magnesium salts containing various anions (Mg(OH)2, Mg (HCO3)2, MgCl2 center dot 6 H2O, Mg(NO3)2 center dot 6 H2O and MgHPO4 center dot 3 H2O) on the properties of a hardened paste of magnesium oxysulfate (MOS) cement. Research has shown that the introduction of low levels of exogenous anions does not significantly disrupt the structure of the main hydration product 517 phase in MOS cement but rather promotes the formation of amorphous phases within the system. In the specific doping-modified MOS system, the grain size of the 517 phase changes, the stability of the material is enhanced, ion leaching is reduced, and the material has excellent compressive strength. X-(Cl-, HCO3-, NO3-, HPO42-, OH-) can partially replace SO42-in the original structure of the 517 phase to form a phase similar to 'X-517.' The microstructure is reconstructed. In summary, the type and dosage of magnesium salt containing different anions have been demonstrated to have a significant effect on the hydration behavior, phase structure evolution and macroproperties of MOS cement systems.

The transition towards low-carbon transport demands a proton exchange membrane fuel cell (PEMFC) with both high efficiency and robust operational stability. Under real operating conditions, the coupling of charge transfer, gas transport, and moisture distribution within fuel cells introduces systemic complexity and poses challenges for catalytic material design. Here, guided by a multifunctional layer coupling strategy, this work achieves multiscale synergistic optimisation from microscopic conductive backbone construction, through mesoscale reactioninterface regulation, to macroscopic integration of membrane-electrode-assembly (MEA) functional layers, by means of controllable surface functionalisation and support hybridisation. Mildly oxidised multi-walled carbon nanotubes (MWCNTs) were engineered to establish a conductive core-reactive interface, preserving the graphitic backbone for electron transport whilst introducing an oxygen-containing outer layer for controlled Pt anchoring. When blended with carbon black (CB), the resulting MWCNT-CB hierarchical conductive framework enhances Pt accessibility, reconstructs transport pathways and improves PEMFC performance under operating conditions. In small-scale cells, the optimised Pt/MWCNT-CB 1:1 catalyst delivered a 68% increase in peak power over Pt/CB. Under automotive-relevant conditions, it achieved 1535 mW cm(-2), surpassing the U.S Department of Energy (DOE) targets. Durability testing following DOE protocols confirmed suppressed Pt migration and reduced carbon corrosion. The predicted operational lifetimes of Pt/MWCNT (6 h oxidation) and Pt/MWCNT-CB 1:1 were 16,906 and 14,761 h, respectively, with start-up/shut-down tolerances of 15,110 and 6060 cycles. Both metrics exceed the DOE ultimate durability targets for light-duty fuel cell vehicles (8000 h operation and 5000 start-up/shutdown cycles), highlighting a practical route towards durable, high-performance catalysts for light-duty fuel cell vehicles.

Magnesium oxysulfate (MOS) cement is a promising binder for heavy-metal immobilization, but the stabilization routes of different metal ions in its dominant 5 Mg(OH)2.MgSO4.7H2O phase, commonly referred to as the 517 phase, remain insufficiently understood. Herein, the immobilization behaviors of Cr, Cu, Fe, Pb, and Zn in the 517 phase were investigated using quantitative X-ray diffraction, thermal analysis, X-ray photoelectron spectroscopy, electron microscopy, leaching tests, and density functional theory calculations. The results show that heavy-metal immobilization in the MOS system is not governed by a single solid-solution mechanism. Instead, two coupled pathways are involved: lattice incorporation into or near the Mg-O framework and interfacial precipitation/passivation at surfaces and grain boundaries. Zn and Fe show relatively favorable initial lattice accommodation, whereas Cu strongly distorts the 517 framework. Pb exhibits limited lattice-substitution tendency because of its large ionic radius, but it achieves high aqueous stability through the formation of low-solubility interfacial products such as PbSO4 and Pb(OH)2. Notably, Zn shows good initial crystallographic compatibility but the highest leaching sensitivity due to soluble zincate formation during water exposure, demonstrating that atomic scale substitution tendency alone cannot predict long-term environmental stability. This study establishes a dual-pathway stabilization framework that links lattice compatibility, interfacial chemistry, and aqueous leaching behavior, providing mechanistic guidance for the design of MOS-based binders for heavy-metal immobilization.

To improve the threshold accuracy of inertial switches, this study proposes a monolithic metal MEMS inertial switch with nonlinear springs. The switch uses two sets of inclined beams with asymmetric initial angles as suspension springs. Geometric nonlinearity produces low displacement sensitivity away from the design threshold and high sensitivity near the threshold. This response improves threshold discrimination and reduces the deviation between the actual and design thresholds. A nonlinear switch and a linear reference switch are designed with the same static threshold of 27.5 g. Their responses are compared using Abaqus static and explicit dynamic simulations. Both switches are monolithically fabricated from 50 μm thick 304 stainless steel by induction-electrode through-mask electrochemical micromachining (IETMEMM). Key dimensional deviations are below 2.5%. Drop-weight tests show measured nonlinear-switch thresholds of 27.8, 27.8, 26.9, and 25.4 g under half-sine shocks with pulse widths of 4, 6, 8, and 10 ms, respectively. The maximum threshold deviation is 2.1 g. The overall threshold accuracy is 92.4%, substantially higher than the 56.0% of the linear reference switch. This work combines a nonlinear threshold-regulation mechanism with monolithic IETMEMM fabrication and provides a new strategy for metal MEMS inertial switches with high threshold accuracy.

The continuous hydration of residual periclase to form brucite with expansive stress remains an issue for the utilization of hardened magnesium oxysulfate (MOS) cement in humid environments. This study explored converting residual periclase and brucite into magnesium silicate hydrate (M-S-H) gel to enhance the mechanical properties of MOS cement after water immersion. Changes to the hydration process, strength development, phase composition, microstructure, and pore structure of MOS cement with silica gel (SG) before and after immersion in water were investigated. Results show that M-S-H gel with encapsulation and cohesiveness formed at very early ages reduced the fluidity and initial setting time of MOS slurry and accelerated the hydration of periclase to form 3 Mg(OH)2.MgSO4.8H2O, thereby shortening the final setting time. The addition of SG complicated the forming process of 5 Mg(OH)2.MgSO4.7H2O (Phase 517), extending its formation period but increasing its content and crystallite size. Synergistic growth between layered M-S-H gel and Phase 517 whiskers optimized the pore structure and densified the matrix, enhancing the early and later mechanical strength of MOS cement by 40%-100 %. When MOS cement with SG was immersed in water, the conversions of residual periclase and brucite into M-S-H gel occurred. Under conditions where the formation rate of M-S-H gel exceeded that of brucite and the consumption of brucite surpassed its formation, SG allowed the mechanical strength and microstructure of MOS cement to develop further, despite MOS cement being immersed in water. However, this enhancement mechanism was effective only when SG dosage was in the range of 5-10 wt%.

Magnesium oxysulfate (MOS) cement is an environmentally friendly cementitious material with promising applications in tropical regions characterized by high temperature and humidity. However, its long-term durability under the cyclic thermal-humidity conditions prevalent in these regions, which accelerate hydration, remains insufficiently understood, particularly regarding the evolution of pore structure. To address this gap, this study aims to investigate the pore structure change of MOS cement subjected to high humidity thermal cycling. A novel method involving cyclic immersion in distilled water at 60 degrees C and 20 degrees C (12 h each cycle) was adopted to expedite the hydration process and simulate the thermal-humidity environment. Results demonstrate that as thermal cycles increased, MgO gradually disappeared and transformed into Mg(OH)2 and 517 phase (5Mg(OH)2 & sdot;MgSO4 & sdot;7H2O), causing a rise in 100 mu m-level porosity and a reduction in mu m-level pore size resulted from the growth of 517 phase in 3-6 mu m-level and the continuous filling of nm-level pores. At 20 cycles, the 517 phase regeneration drove mu m-level porosity to peak at 21.05 % with minimized nano-level porosity, and the strength back up to a high. Beyond 30 cycles, CO2 intrusion triggered MgCO3 formation and Mg2+ depletion, causing 517 phase decomposition that induced pore coarsening and a rapid decrease in mechanical properties. The study reveals that the concentration of free Mg2+ is the main factor determining the evolution of 517 phase through reversible phase transformation, where 517 phase content shows positive correlation with strength, establishing its stability as the key factor affecting the pore structure and durability of MOS cement.

The demand for electrothermal microgrippers is gradually growing in various fields. However, the current processing technology is difficult to be compatible with low cost and high efficiency. For this reason, a through-mask electrochemical micromachining (TMEMM) method to fabricate electrothermal microgrippers is proposed in this paper. This approach combines surface acoustic waves (SAW) with induction electrode through-mask electrochemical micromachining (IETMEMM). The comparative analysis of four methods (TMEMM, IETMEMM, SAW-TMEMM, SAW-IETMEMM) demonstrates the critical role of SAW in enhancing blind-hole localization. It emphasizes IETMEMM's superiority in through-hole processing. Then, the process parameter experiments are conducted based on this basis and the preferred parameters were as follows: 6 W/cm2 SAW power density, 1.7 MHz frequency, inclined incidence direction, 1 A current and 100% duty cycle. Eventually, a 50 mu m-thick stainless steel electrothermal microgripper was successfully fabricated. It has a minimum line width of 28.4 mu m. Total processing time is only 22 s. This approach demonstrates both high efficiency and low cost based on a certain accuracy. The present study offers a novel approach to the process of microgrippers. This paper introduces through-mask electrochemical micromachining into electrothermal microgripper for the first time.A SAW-assisted induction electrode through-mask electrochemical micromachining method to fabricate electrothermal microgripper is proposed.SAW removes electrolytic products from the processing surface, induction electrode through-mask electrochemical micromachining reduces lateral etching of through holes.A high-efficiency and low-cost process of electrothermal microgripper can be realized according to the method proposed.

The objective of this study is to address the issues associated with high carbon emissions, energy consumption, and rapid setting in magnesium phosphate cement (MPC) that traditionally relies on dead-burned magnesium oxide (MgO). Natural brucite was employed as a magnesium source to fully substitute for dead-burned MgO in the preparation of MPC. The feasibility of converting natural brucite into struvite in the MPC system was investigated. Changes to reaction process, strength development, reaction products, microstructure, and pore structure of brucite-based MPC after adding citric acid and urea were explored. Results show that the precipitation of struvite in the brucite-based MPC system occurred rapidly, with a setting time of only 13 min. The addition of citric acid suppressed the reaction of brucite by its adsorption and coordination mechanisms, thereby extending the setting time and reducing the reaction-released temperature of brucite-based MPC. Despite this, the addition of citric acid enhanced the early compressive strength of brucite-based MPC by increasing the crystallinity of struvite, while decreased the later one by increasing the content of macropore, which resulted from the reduced forming content of struvite. The addition of urea further prolonged the setting time and reduced the reaction-released temperature of brucite-based MPC containing 2.0 wt% of citric acid, attributed to its endothermic reaction forming carbonic acid, which ultimately transformed into magnesite. However, the addition of urea reduced both the early and later compressive strength of brucite-based MPC containing 2.0 wt% of citric acid, as it increased the total pore volume and macropore content, caused by the reduced amorphous phase content. Additionally, it can be concluded that preparing MPC with low carbon footprint using natural brucite is feasible.

Bubble adhesion to the machined surface is a long-standing problem that significantly reduces machining accuracy in through-mask electrochemical micromachining (TMEMM). To address this issue, this paper introduces surface acoustic wave (SAW) into TMEMM for the first time and proposes a novel method: SAW-assisted induction electrode TMEMM (SAW-IETMEMM). In this method, bubbles are removed by the combined effects of acoustic radiation force and acoustic streaming generated by SAW. To demonstrate the practicality of this method, an experimental setup is developed in which SAW is induced by body wave. Experimental results reveal that SAW decreases the number of bubbles, reaction resistance, and corrosion potential, while increasing electrochemical double-layer capacitance and current efficiency. This demonstrates that SAW not only removes bubbles but also reduces energy consumption. Through parameter optimization, a complex microstructure-microgripper was fabricated with straight edges and high machining accuracy. The non-uniformity of the fabricated microgripper is 12.5 %, which is a remarkable 87.5 % enhancement in accuracy compared to traditional TMEMM. Additionally, the paper explores the application of SAW-IETMEMM for fabricating complex microstructures, such as the pattern of magpie, microfluidic mold, and the character of '(sic)'. These results demonstrate the significant potential of SAW-IETMEMM for industrial applications.

This study explores the potential of MPC in terms of high resistivity and insulation performance, addressing the safety and reliability requirements of modern electrical equipment and building materials under harsh conditions, such as high temperature and humidity. High-resistivity magnesium phosphate cement (HRMPC) was prepared by using high-insulation electrofused magnesia as raw materials and incorporating vinyl acetate-ethylene copolymer (VAE), the resistivity reaches up to 109 Omega & sdot;cm, while the compressive strength reaches 49.9 MPa. The phase transformation and microstructural evolution of magnesium phosphate cement (MPC) during hydration were investigated, along with the relationship between resistivity, strength, and hardness. The mechanism by which VAE enhances resistivity was also elucidated. During early hydration, HRMPC primarily consists of magnesium ammonium phosphate hexahydrate (MNP) crystalline regions, magnesium oxide, silica, and amorphous hydration products. As hydration progresses, water combines with magnesium ammonium phosphate to form MNP crystals, while excess water evaporates. This reduction in water content significantly increases resistivity, while the growth of MNP crystals improves strength and hardness. The added VAE forms a thin film coating the inner pore walls, obstructing electron transfer and enhancing resistivity. These findings demonstrate that HRMPC achieves high resistivity and mechanical performance through controlled hydration and VAE incorporation, making it suitable for applications in harsh environments. The discovery of MPC's high electrical resistance facilitates its application in buildings requiring excellent insulation, such as explosion-proof and fire-resistant structures.

Proton exchange membranes (PEMs) are critical to fuel cell performance, where ion transport, catalyst activity, and mass transfer determine efficiency and durability. However, conventional membranes in PEM fuel cells often suffer from hydrogen crossover, limited conductivity, and poor interfacial stability. To address these challenges, this study develops a nanofiber membrane system with synergistic structural and interfacial enhancement. Through nanofiber architecture and surface engineering, the membrane balances proton conductivity, mechanical strength and electrochemical performance. The sandwich-structure nanofiber membrane (SSNFM) achieves a peak power density of 942 mW cm-2 after 100-hour accelerated stress testing, substantially outperforming conventional commercial membranes (520 mW cm-2). Electrochemical characterization confirms enhanced proton conductivity for SSNFM (40.4 mS cm-1) compared to commercial membranes (17.5 mS cm-1). Multiscale analyses, including x-ray computed tomography and multiphase simulations, reveal improved membrane properties, catalyst layer stability, and triple-phase boundary formation, facilitating efficient charge and mass transport. This work presents a membrane design strategy to enhance fuel cell performance in sustainable energy applications.

Proton exchange membrane fuel cells (PEMFCs) are important clean energy technology, yet the material and structural complexity of their membrane electrode assemblies (MEAs) can hamper the development of next‐generation structures, as even a subtle change to one component can have a significant impact on others. Mathematical modelling of PEMFC MEAs proves to be one of the few techniques able to decouple this complexity, but the available models are commonly based on over‐simplified structures meaning they are less able to inform material design. In this study, an advanced image‐based modelling approach is developed to reveal the interplay of material changes in PEMFC MEAs. Using high‐temperature PEMFCs as an example system, advanced structural imaging techniques are used to produce a detailed 3D MEA reconstruction which forms the basis for the multiphase and multi‐physics model. This allows both the prediction of cell performance and the decoupling the impact of changes to individual structures or components (such as membrane pores, catalyst cracks, and phase migration), on cell behaviour. These phenomena can then be selectively ‘re‐coupled’ to deconvolute the interplay of different materials employed within operational cells. The resulting insights provide a mechanistic understanding of MEA performance, guiding the design and optimisation of future PEMFCs.