Excessive sodium intake is increasingly detrimental to health, driving the urgent need for effective salt reduction strategies in food industry. Hollow salts with unique physical structures can enhance sodium perception efficiency in the oral cavity. This study utilizes konjac glucomannan (KGM) to stabilize hollow structure formation while improving sodium retention and availability. However, single strategies alone are insufficient to balance salt reduction and sensory quality, so we integrated a new multi-pathway salt reduction strategy based on KGM as a hollow salt stabilizer, using KCl as a substitution for NaCl and citric acid (CA) as a saltiness enhancer and bitterness masking agent. The results showed that 0.75 % KGM contributed to forming smaller hollow spherical structures with lower bulk density, promoting rapid dissolution of salt particles in saliva and their retention on tongue surface, which enhanced perception efficiency. Simultaneously, KCl provided similar saltiness without destroying the crystal structure of hollow salts, which presented porous structures at 30 % substitution. Interestingly, KGM could hinder K+ release to suppress bitterness. Encapsulation with CA increased Na contents on salt particle surfaces, enhancing saltiness perception while effectively reducing bitterness. Saltiness enhancement effect peaked when CA was added at 1.0 %. These KGM/KCl/CA particles, combining optimized physical structures and multi-taste interactions, dissolved rapidly in saliva, improved sodium content and distribution, and synergistically enhanced saltiness perception and mouthfeel. This study provides a promising approach for developing novel saltiness agents for low-salt foods, especially solid foods.

Water-in-oil-in-water (W1/O/W2) emulsions are capable of co-encapsulating hydrophilic and hydrophobic compounds, but their practical application is often limited by poor physicochemical stability. In this study, a W1/O/W2 emulsion was developed by stabilizing the internal and external aqueous phases with chitosan (CS) and whey protein concentrate (WPC), respectively, while incorporating cinnamaldehyde (CA) into the intermediate oil phase for potential dual-interface stabilization through interfacial interactions. Optimization of the phase composition led to an emulsion with significantly improved storage stability (extending its shelf-life from 7 to 60 days) and enhanced tolerance ability against pH and ionic strength variations. The optimized emulsion successfully co-encapsulated tea polyphenols (TPPs) and β-carotene (BC), maintaining high bioactive compound levels and preserving antioxidant activity under varying pH and thermal conditions. In vitro gastrointestinal digestion assays revealed that CA-modified emulsions significantly improved the bioaccessibility of TPPs and BC to 61.72

W/O Emulsion is reported to enhance the saltness perception, resulting in the NaCl reduction. But how other surface-active surfactants in the food matrix affect the saltness perception in the emulsion is still unclear. This study investigated the effect of eight secondary surfactants on the structural properties and saltiness perception of glycerol monostearate-based oleogel-stabilized emulsions (OGEs). The selected low-molecular-weight surfactants (sucrose fatty acid ester-SE, soy lecithin-SL, Span 80, Tween 80) markedly enhanced sodium release and saltiness perception in OGEs. SE- and SL-containing emulsions achieved the most rapid sodium release and strongest saltiness perception due to extensive droplet aggregation. In comparison, three protein-based surfactants (casein, pea protein, or soy protein) exhibited milder but significant effects on saltiness enhancement by promoting droplet growth and localized coalescence. During oral processing, OGEs were further emulsified into oil-in-water emulsions with smaller, more oil droplets, concentrating sodium in the aqueous phase. The sodium diffusion test confirmed that the secondary surfactants, especially low-molecular-weight surfactants, further increased the sodium diffusion rate, benefiting for the improvement of saltiness perception. This study provides new ideas for designing solid and semi-solid low-salt foods.

The growing demand for sustainable and high-quality protein sources has accelerated the development of novel proteins from plant, microbial, and alternative resources. However, existing reviews are often descriptive and lack an integrated framework linking protein source characteristics, extraction strategies, structural properties, and functional and nutritional outcomes. This review provides a comprehensive and integrative analysis of novel protein resources, classified as underutilized by‑product proteins, alternative established proteins, and emerging platforms, by systematically connecting protein chemistry, nutrition, and processing technologies. Three interconnected challenges are identified as inefficient extraction and purification, incomplete structure-function understanding, and fragmented safety and nutrition frameworks. A decision‑oriented framework is proposed to guide the selection of protein sources and extraction/fractionation strategies based on source‑specific structural constraints and targeted functional properties. Comparative quantitative tables summarize compositional characteristics, digestibility (DIAAS/PDCAAS), techno‑functional performance, and technology readiness levels of different novel proteins. Structure-function relationships are further elucidated to explain how processing‑induced modifications influence solubility, emulsification, and gelation behavior. Nutritional quality, safety risks, and regulatory considerations are critically assessed, distinguishing intrinsic hazards from process‑related risks and highlighting mitigation strategies. The integration of these aspects enables the establishment of a systematic workflow from raw material selection to application‑oriented protein design. This review provides a practical reference for optimizing the utilization of novel proteins and supports their translation into scalable and sustainable food systems.

Excessive dietary intake of high sodium often increases the risk of cardiovascular, and other diseases. Current researches have focused on the development of salt reduction strategies (SRSs), aiming to reduce salt content and maintain the acceptability of food. But the establishment of saltiness evaluation methods is also crucial for the development of low-salt foods in order to evaluate the effect of salt reduction. This paper firstly reviews the process of human saltiness perception, and summarizes the characteristics and research progress of corresponding SRSs. Then, different methods used for saltiness evaluation are summarized and their applications in SRSs are explored. To address the problem of a single saltiness evaluation method, the evaluation methods should be related to the food systems and the saltiness perception process in order to achieve more accurate and quantitative saltiness analysis. These objective methods for saltiness evaluation include spectroscopic, electrochemical, microscopy, animal and cells models, saliva proteomics analysis, biomimetic taste sensor, molecular docking and other simulation methods. Last but not least, the correlation between these methods and saltiness perception often needs to be verified by sensory assessment. This review can provide a theoretical reference for the food industry to support the development of salt reduction foods.

The development of sustainable and cost-effective thermal insulation materials is essential for improving energy efficiency and reducing dependence on petroleum-derived foams. Herein, a simple heating curing strategy was developed to fabricate bio-based closed-cell foams through hydroxypropyl methylcellulose (HPMC)-regulated Pickering emulsion templating. In this process, acrylated epoxidized soybean oil (AESO)-based emulsions were directly cured by heating, while the thermogelation and film-forming behavior of HPMC regulated the evolution of the porous structure. Increasing the HPMC concentration significantly enhanced the rheological stability of the emulsions, with the storage modulus increasing and the thermal gelation temperature decreasing from 66.1 °C to 40.3 °C. The foams exhibited low thermal conductivity of 0.042 − 0.058 W/m·K and exhibited pronounced thermal insulation in infrared thermography analysis. Meanwhile, the Young’s modulus increased from 2.64 MPa to 4.72 MPa, indicating improved mechanical properties. Micro-CT and SEM analyses revealed that the pore structure could be regulated by HPMC, with the average pore diameter increasing from 0.27 ± 0.13 mm to 1.26 ± 0.25 mm and the macropore volume fraction within the reconstructed region of interest decreasing from 84.4 % to 58.8 %. These findings provide a scalable and sustainable strategy for designing candidate bio-based thermal insulation foams, with potential relevance to energy-saving applications such as building-related insulation fillers, cold-chain logistics, and protective packaging.

With the rise of takeaway and ready-to-eat food delivery services, the demand for packaging that preserves food freshness is increasing. In this study, a fully renewable phase change foam was fabricated via a Pickering emulsion templating method, incorporating carnauba wax (CW) and acrylated epoxidized soybean oil (AESO). The effects of CW concentration on the rheological behavior, microstructure, thermal energy storage, and mechanical strength were systematically investigated. The incorporation of higher CW content improved both compressive strength (0.135-0.364 MPa) and thermal storage capacity (13.8 J/g at 10 wt%), thereby demonstrating enhanced structural stability and thermal buffering performance. Under simulated food delivery conditions, the optimized foam maintained a stable thermal plateau (75-75.3 °C) for 30 s, exhibiting a 5.8 °C reduction in temperature decay relative to the control AESO foams. These findings provide a promising strategy for developing sustainable, thermally efficient packaging materials for short-term temperature stabilization in food packaging applications.

Although gum arabic (GA) is known to enhance saltiness perception primarily relying on its arabinogalactanprotein (AGP) fraction, recent evidence suggests that AGP-to-arabinogalactan (AG) ratio also plays a critical role. Nevertheless, the mechanisms by which these fractions interact with mucins in regulating Na+ migration remain unclear. This study elucidated their synergistic regulations based on glycoprotein-to-glycan ratios. Oral simulation demonstrated that AGP-AG enhanced saltiness perception, whereas excessive AGP diminished it, closely linked to the dual role of AGP on Na+ migration across mucin layers. During initial contact, AGP-AG with NaCl binary mixtures underwent hydrophilic-to-hydrophobic interfacial transition. Balanced AGP:AG lowered surface tension, better spreading on tongue surface. During diffusion, AGP increased |zeta-potential| and decreased sizes in binary mixtures, and weakened surface tension in AGP-AG-mucin with NaCl ternary systems, promoting Na+ loading and transport. Excessive AGP occupied mucin binding sites, forming smaller complexes with low ion mobility. Rheological and interfacial analyses revealed that AGP-AG hydration cages increased viscosity, prolonging sodium short-term retention under oral friction. Competitive binding partially depolymerized mucin networks, forming low-viscosity flexible hydration layers that accelerated Na+ diffusion to receptors. In contrast, excessive AGP induced transient networks with mucin via strong interactions, restricting Na+ free movement. Thermodynamic evidence indicated hydrogen bonds dominated at low AGP:AG (exothermic), whereas hydrophobic interactions prevailed with excessive AGP (endothermic). Overall, AGP fraction is dominant in enhancing sodium migration and saltiness perception by modulating mucin structure and interfacial behavior, while excessive AGP suppressed these effects, providing mechanistic insights for designing effective low-dose saltiness enhancers in liquid foods.

In this study, carboxymethyl chitin nanofibers (CMCN) with tunable physicochemical properties were prepared in alkali/urea solution through a one-pot carboxymethylation reaction. These fabricated chitin nanofibers can be used as stabilizers with an interface engineering strategy to develop functional Pickering emulsions with adjustable properties. Characterization revealed that the surface charge, dispersion and morphology of CMCN were influenced by variations in alkali concentration and degree of substitution (DS), confirming their tunable property. The stability of Pickering emulsions could be tuned by adding CMCN with different physicochemical properties. The Pickering emulsions exhibited well stability over a 60-day storage period and under centrifugal condition. The formation of imine bonds at the oil-water interface enhanced the viscoelasticity of Pickering emulsions. In addition, in vitro digestion results indicated that Pickering emulsion stabilized by CMCN had the ability to retard lipid digestion. This work provides a safe and convenient method for preparing CMCN with tunable properties, which can be used to stabilize and improve the functionality of Pickering emulsions.

Schiff bases have gained increasing academic interests due to their excellent tunability, dynamic reversibility, and multifunctionality. Although current researches have predominantly focused on their chemical applications, there is a lack of systematic studies on their optimization in food-grade materials and their impact on food functionalities. This review explores the formation mechanisms of Schiff bases, including chemical structure, composition, and functionality of components, with particular emphasis on the synergistic interactions between food-grade natural reactants (e.g., proteins, polysaccharides, and phytochemicals) and synthetic components, along with their mechanistic influence on the performance of materials. Furthermore, innovative applications in food colloids, functional materials, and delivery systems are discussed. Special attention is given on balancing the functionality, stability, and biocompatibility of the materials to meet practical demands in food industry applications. The study aims to provide valuable theoretical support for the applications of Schiff bases in food systems while offering novel insights into food preservation, nutrient delivery, and quality enhancement. Future studies are encouraged to explore diversified reaction conditions and broaden application scenarios, particularly in sustainable green food processing technologies, to unlock their full potential in the food fields.

The stabilization of double emulsions (e.g., oil-in-water-in-oil or water-in-oil-in-water emulsions) remains a research challenge due to their simultaneous possession of two distinct oil-water interfaces. In this study, a novel oil-in-water-in-oil (O/W/O) double emulsion was constructed utilizing a beeswax-soybean oil oleogel as the continuous phase, while a gelatin-stabilized oil-in-water (O/W) emulsion served as the dispersed phase. The effects of gelatin concentration, beeswax content, and the volume fraction of the dispersed phase on the stability, microstructure, and rheological properties of the O/W/O double emulsions were investigated. The results indicated that the emulsion droplet size reduced from 10.08 +/- 2.29 mu m to 6.92 +/- 1.82 mu m by elevating the gelatin concentration. In addition, the solidification of the O/W/O double emulsion into an oil-solid-solid interface structure induced by thermal treatment and subsequent storage at room temperature, which resulted in improved stability and modulus. Following freeze-thaw cycles, the stability of the double emulsions remained unaffected by varying concentrations of beeswax (ranging from 2 to 8 wt%). Destabilization was observed only when the volume fraction of the O/W emulsion reached 55 % v/v, suggesting that double emulsions with lower internal dispersed-phase contents (e.g., 10 % v/v and 25 % v/v) exhibited superior freeze-thaw stability. These findings highlight the potential of this innovative formulation for producing interfacially stable O/W/O double emulsions with enhanced physical properties, thereby offering a promising strategy for applications that necessitate long-term stability and structural integrity.

Collagen peptide (CP) and whey protein are common ingredients in protein-rich functional beverages. However, their synergistic effects on digestion dynamics and nutraceutical bioaccessibility remain insufficiently elucidated. We here investigated how CP modulated the digestive fate, and curcumin bioaccessibility of whey protein concentrate (WPC)-stabilized emulsions. CP incorporation exhibited minimal influence on the initial physicochemical stability, droplet characteristics, or curcumin encapsulation efficiency (>88%). However, in vitro gastrointestinal digestion revealed that CP significantly increased curcumin bioaccessibility by 1.07- to 1.19-fold and accelerated the proteolysis of WPC-emulsified droplets. Microstructural analysis of the intestinal digesta demonstrated that CP induced the formation of distinct hollow vesicle-like structures, which were absent in the control emulsions. The soluble fraction of the digesta from CP-supplemented systems showed enhanced oleic acid solubilization in a dose-dependent manner, strongly associating with the formation of these hollow vesicular assemblies. Together, these findings indicate that CP modulates intestinal colloidal structures, thereby improving curcumin bioaccessibility.

As the pace of urban life accelerates, plastic wrap has become an everyday necessity. However, traditional petroleum-based plastic wrap is difficult to degrade and prone to releasing harmful plasticizers. Therefore, developing sustainable, biodegradable, and high-performance alternative materials is crucial. Inspired by the cellulose-gum reinforcement mechanism in flaxseed hulls, this study utilized flaxseed hulls as raw material. Through hot water washing, alkali boiling, and bleaching, high-purity insoluble cellulose (FC) was extracted. Subsequently, flaxseed hull cellulose nanofibers (FCN) were prepared via TEMPO oxidation and ultrasonic treatment. Using FC and FCN, an all-natural cellulose-flaxseed gum composite membrane (CM) was constructed, where FCN serves as the framework and flaxseed gum acts as the binder, forming a dense structure. This composite membrane demonstrated effectiveness in nut preservation, significantly delaying nut oxidation and providing a viable pathway for sustainable food packaging.

Spray drying is critical for probiotic stabilization but exposes sensitive bacteria to damaging high instantaneous temperatures. To mitigate this thermal stress, this study developed a novel water-in-water (W/W) Pickering emulsion system stabilized by using solid lipid nanoparticles (SLNs) composed of beeswax and soybean oil (BW/SO-SLNs). These SLNs impart phase-change latent heat functionality to the emulsion. The thermal protective efficacy of this engineered emulsion for encapsulating Lactobacillus plantarum was systematically evaluated. The BW/SO-SLNs-stabilized emulsion exhibited a significantly elevated phase transition temperature (51.90 degrees C) compared to that of the blank emulsion (31.58 degrees C), demonstrating enhanced thermal buffering capacity. During spray drying at an inlet air temperature of 140 degrees C, microcapsules incorporating 0.25 wt% BW/SO-SLNs achieved a probiotic survival rate of 76.07%, markedly higher than the 58.69% observed in the blank group (without BW/SO-SLNs). This represents an approximately 1.30-fold improvement in protective efficiency. Furthermore, accelerated thermal stress testing (90 degrees C, 10 min) confirmed superior thermal stability, with viable counts for BW/SO-SLNs-loaded microcapsules remaining at 8.19 log CFU/g versus 6.95 log CFU/g for the blank. The results demonstrated that the BW/SO-SLNs-stabilized W/W Pickering emulsion significantly enhanced probiotic viability during spray drying and thermal processing through a phase-change heat absorption mechanism. This approach would provide a promising novel encapsulation strategy for protecting heat-sensitive bioactive compounds in drying processes.

Bergamot essential oil (BEO) has demonstrated antidepressant potential, but its oral application is limited by poor water solubility and undesirable organoleptic properties. In this study, a BEO-loaded beverage was developed based on a whey protein-stabilized oil-in-water emulsion system. The optimal formulation, determined via single-factor experiments combined with orthogonal optimization, consisted of inulin (0.5 g/50 g), milk powder (2.0 g/50 g), sucralose (0.008 g/50 g), and sodium carboxymethyl cellulose (0.04 g/50 g). The resulting beverage remained stable without visible phase separation during 4 months of storage at 4 °C. In a chronic corticosterone treatment (CCT)-induced mouse model of depression, oral administration of the BEO beverage increased activity in the central area of the open field test and exploratory behavior in the elevated plus maze, while reducing repetitive stereotyped behaviors in the marble burying test. At the molecular level, the BEO beverage was associated with reduced levels of interleukin-1β (IL-1β), tumor necrosis factor-alpha (TNF-α), interleukin-6 (IL-6), and corticosteroid (CORT), and increased levels of corticotropin-releasing hormone (CRH), adrenocorticotropic hormone (ACTH), serotonin (5-HT), dopamine (DA), and norepinephrine (NE). Additionally, the BEO beverage was associated with observed alleviation of neuronal damage in the hippocampal CA3 region, upregulation of brain-derived neurotrophic factor (BDNF), improved gut microbial diversity, and altered host metabolic profiles. Collectively, these findings suggest that the BEO emulsion beverage is a feasible intervention for alleviating depression-like behaviors in the mouse model, and provide initial associative evidence supporting its potential as a functional food for mood management.

This study developed a low-fat pork gel based on Pickering emulsion stabilized by carboxymethyl chitin nanofibers (CMCNF) and carboxymethyl chitosan (CMCS), cross-linked with oxidized sodium alginate (OSA). Fourier Transform infrared spectroscopy (FT-IR) and X-ray photoelectron spectroscopy (XPS) confirmed the Schiff base cross-linking between OSA and the amino groups in pork protein, CMCS and CMCNF. With the increase in OSA content (0.5%-1.5%) at the same substitution ratio (30%), the water-holding capacity increased to more than 90%, the cooking loss decreased to less than 8%. At the highest substitution level (50%), the cooking loss was further reduced to 4.32%, and the hardness and gel strength were increased by about 4.7 times compared to control group. The water immobilization and gel network of the pork gels were enhanced. Rheological tests indicated strengthened viscoelastic properties, and in vitro digestion studies revealed delayed lipid digestion. These results indicate that the synergistic combination of the physical stability of Pickering emulsion and chemical cross-linking through a dynamic covalent network provides a strategy for developing structured fat substitutes, and promoting the development of healthy low-fat meat products.

Emulsifiers play a crucial role in improving the shelf-life stability and aeration quality of recombined whipped cream (RDC). This study systematically investigated the interfacial adsorption behaviors of four types of polysorbates (Tween20, Tween40, Tween60, Tween80) at concentrations ranging from 0.025% to 0.1%, as well as their impacts on the emulsion properties, interfacial composition, stability, and whipping properties of RDC. The results revealed that all four polysorbates significantly reduced the oil/water (O/W) interfacial tension and decreased the fat globule size, with these effects intensifying as the concentration increased. At equivalent concentrations, Tween20 exhibited the strongest particle size-reducing capacity and induced the most pronounced interfacial protein displacement, yet the compromised mechanical strength of the interfacial film led to diminished emulsion stability. In contrast, the RDC sample incorporated with Tween40 displayed the optimal emulsion stability. Moreover, all four polysorbates markedly shortened the whipping time and enhanced the overrun, but simultaneously increased serum loss. Notably, Tween80, which contains unsaturated fatty acid chains, contributed to the enhancement of foam firmness at high concentrations (0.075-0.1%), which may be correlated with its balanced properties of interfacial strength and interfacial tension. These findings facilitate a deeper mechanistic understanding of the relationship between the interfacial adsorption behavior of emulsifiers and the emulsion stability and aeration performance of RDC emulsions.

Sucrose reduction destabilizes egg-white foams in angel food cake. This weakens the whipped scaffold that must survive batter preparation and baking, leading to reduced volume, a coarser crumb structure, and increased firmness. Under sucrose-free conditions, this study combined xanthan gum (XG), carboxymethyl cellulose (CMC), and the sweetener D-allulose to stabilize the foam scaffold. The combined system improved foam development, post-whipping stability, and structure transfer from foam to batter. Compared with the sucrose-free control, it produced finer and more homogeneous bubbles and preserved this microstructure more effectively after flour incorporation. Multi-scale analyses showed distinct roles for the three components. XG increased low-shear apparent viscosity and bulk elasticity, contributing to an elasticity-dominated foam network. CMC accelerated dynamic interfacial-tension evolution and promoted foaming capacity. D-allulose shifted interfacial behavior toward that of the sucrose control and modulated protein surface hydrophobicity and apparent zeta potential. These coordinated changes improved foam integrity and structure transfer and were ultimately reflected in cake quality. The optimized system achieved the highest specific volume (4.22 +/- 0.03 mL/g) and the lowest crumb hardness (233.00 +/- 3.27 g) among the sucrose-free treatments (p < 0.05), together with a finer pore structure. Overall, the strengthening of the whipping-stage foam scaffold provides an effective route for reducing structural collapse in sucrose-reduced aerated baked products.

Developing sustainable alternative proteins into convenient foods is crucial, with emulsions being key carriers. This study elucidated the emulsification mechanisms of Fusarium venenatum TB01 isolated mycoprotein (MP) through a multi-scale comparison with soy (SP) and whey (WP) proteins. MP exhibited an ordered α-helical structure (27.53%) and high solubility (76.46%), while SP existed as large aggregates (2568.33 nm, 32.61% solubility). Interfacial and micro-rheology analyses revealed three distinct stabilization behaviors: WP formed a strong elastic interfacial film; SP stabilized emulsions through bulk gelation, which provided coalescence stability but did not prevent extensive creaming (CI = 78.9% after 14 days); MP showed high interfacial adsorption (Γ = 5.39 mg/m2) and produced fine droplets (D3,2 = 3.93 μm). Cryo-SEM revealed distinct protein morphologies that corresponded to their emulsification behaviors. These findings established MP as an effective emulsifier and provided a basis for protein selection in emulsion-based foods.

Constructed symbiotic multi-strain probiotic system in water-in-water (W/W) Pickering emulsion is a new strategy for producing highly viable and multifunction probiotic agents. Herein, Saccharomyces cerevisiae (S. cerevisiae) and Lactobacillus helveticus (L. helveticus) were co-cultured within a W/W Pickering emulsion and subsequently encapsulated via spray-drying. By systematically optimizing interspecies interactions including inoculation methods, inoculation proportion, carbon and nitrogen source concentrations, and cultivation methods. We established a highly efficient co-culture system: simultaneous inoculation, L. helveticus at 103 CFU/ mL, yeast extract peptone dextrose medium (YPD) broth supplemented with 2.0 % sucrose and 1.0 % yeast extract, 12 h agitation culture followed by 32 h static culture at 28 degrees C. This approach achieved exceptional microbial symbiosis, elevating viable counts to 1.16 x 108 CFU/mL for S. cerevisiae (3.28 x monoculture) and 1.22 x 108 CFU/mL for L. helveticus. Probiotics retained high viability (S. cerevisiae: 2.43 x 108 CFU/g, L. helveticus: 2.12 x 109 CFU/g). Demonstrated remarkable stability during in vitro digestion (S. cerevisiae 2.20 x 107 CFU/g, L. helveticus 3.47 x 107 CFU/g) after post-microencapsulation. The co-culture system could synergistically enhanced probiotic activity and digestive stability, which would provide a suggestive strategy for developing mixed probiotic formulations.