Trace elements play critical roles in secondary metabolism, and their regulatory mechanisms on cordycepin, pentostatin, and adenosine synthesis in Cordyceps militaris remain unclear. This study systematically investigated the effects of selenite [Se(Ⅳ)], ferrous iron [Fe(Ⅱ)], copper [Cu(Ⅱ)], and zinc [Zn(Ⅱ)] on these nucleoside compounds. The results showed that 20 mg/L Se(Ⅳ) and 100 mg/L Fe(Ⅱ) increased cordycepin yield by 108.8% and 111.8%, while upregulating cns1 and cns2 expression by 5.1-6.1 times. Cu(Ⅱ) at 40 mg/L inhibited cordycepin synthesis but significantly increased pentostatin yield by 198.9%, and upregulated cns3 expression by 1.6-4.3 times. Zn(Ⅱ) at 100 mg/L suppressed both cordycepin and pentostatin synthesis and significantly downregulated cns1-cns3 expression. The expression levels of cns1-cns3, carbon assimilation efficiency, the pentose phosphate pathway, purine synthesis, and ATP/NADPH supply emerged as key determinants of cordycepin and pentostatin production. Molecular dynamics simulations revealed that Fe(Ⅱ), Cu(Ⅱ), and Zn(Ⅱ) differentially modulated the Cns2-3′-AMP complex through distinct binding affinities and conformational constraints, providing a structural explanation for their contrasting effects on cordycepin biosynthesis. Transcriptomic analysis indicated that these trace elements coordinately reprogrammed carbon/nitrogen metabolism, transmembrane transport, membrane integrity, oxidative stress, and lipid homeostasis during nucleoside overproduction. These findings establish a multi-level mechanistic framework, from metal-dependent enzymatic regulation to synthetic network reprogramming, for trace element-driven overproduction of cordycepin and pentostatin in C. militaris.

Co-exposure of tire microplastics (TMPs) and antibiotics has been confirmed to pose toxic risks to aquatic organisms. However, the contributions of TMP additives to these risks and the underlying mechanisms remain underreported. In this study, factor analysis and molecular docking and molecular dynamics simulations were employed to investigate the differential additive-related hepatotoxicity risks associated with TMP-antibiotic exposure in zebrafish. The differential hepatotoxicity risks of five types of TMPs and six antibiotics were simulated in the presence of additives. Zebrafish exposed to different TMPs showed significant differences in hepatotoxicity risks, with styrene-butadiene rubber (SBR) exhibiting the most pronounced toxic effects. The additive contribution analysis revealed that in the presence of SBR additives, TMPs-antibiotics posed higher toxicity risks to the cytochrome P 17A2 (CYP17A2) isoenzymes CYP2K19, CYP1A, CYP3A65, and CYP2K22 in zebrafish, showing synergistic effects primarily driven by plasticizers. Furthermore, the hepatotoxicity risks of TMPs-antibiotics in zebrafish in the presence of additives were significantly mitigated by the selection of alternative plasticizers. The micromechanisms by which additives affected the TMP-antibiotic hepatotoxicity risks in zebrafish were elucidated through mechanistic analysis. This study aimed to characterize the additive-influenced hepatotoxicity risks of TMPs-antibiotics, providing micro-level insights and theoretical support for ecological risk assessments in aquatic environments.

Per- and polyfluoroalkyl substances (PFAS) are recognized as ubiquitous "forever chemicals" with endocrine-disrupting properties. Prenatal exposure to PFAS has been implicated in the disruption of glucose homeostasis, potentially contributing to the development of gestational diabetes mellitus (GDM), thereby exerting a profound impact on both maternal and fetal health. However, the epidemiological evidence regarding this association remains inconsistent. We performed a systematic literature search in PubMed, Web of Science, Scopus for studies published before February 20, 2025. This meta-analysis synthesized data from 28 studies and indicates a significant correlation between prenatal PFAS exposure and the oral glucose tolerance test (OGTT), along with an elevated risk of developing GDM. Specifically, perfluorooctane sulfonate (PFOS) exhibited a weak but significant negative correlation with fasting blood glucose (FBG), while perfluorooctanoic acid (PFOA), PFOS, perfluorononanoic acid (PFNA), and perfluoroundecanoic acid (PFUnDA) were found to significantly elevate the levels of 1-h OGTT and 2-h OGTT, with perfluorodecanoic acid (PFDA) showing a significant positive association with 1-h OGTT. Furthermore, PFOA, PFNA, and PFDA were significantly associated with an increased risk of GDM when analyzed in ln-units. Additionally, we reviewed experimental studies (both murine and in vitro models) that elucidated the mechanisms through which PFAS exposure disrupts glucose homeostasis in various organs and tissues by impairing β-cell function and reduced insulin sensitivity. These findings provide data that can inform protective strategies for pregnant populations.

Monascus species exhibit strong potential for selenium (Se) enrichment. This study developed Se-enriched Monascus ruber MR1 through solid-state fermentation using selenite [Se(IV)] and selenium nanoparticles (SeNPs) as Se sources. SeNPs exhibited lower mycelial toxicity (IC50 = 218.5 mg/L) than Se(IV) (IC50 = 16.8 mg/ L), while promoting higher organic Se conversion efficiency. Both Se forms significantly enhanced monacolin K (9.1 mg/g with Se(IV); 8.7 mg/g with SeNPs) and Monascus pigments yields by reinforced polyketide pathways, and maintained citrinin to undetectable levels. Transcriptomics revealed that Se enrichment regulated secondary metabolism through multi-pathway reinforcement including carbon/amino acid metabolism, energy/cofactor supply, transmembrane transport, and oxidative stress under high Se conditions. These findings establish SeNPs as effective Se-source for producing functional Monascus products with optimized Se biofortification and metabolite profiles.

The selection of implants for fixing unstable femoral neck fractures (FNF) remains contentious. This study employs finite element analysis to examine the biomechanics of treating Pauwels type III femoral neck fractures using cannulated compression screws (3CS), biplane double-supported screw fixation (BDSF), and the femoral neck system (FNS). A three-dimensional model of the proximal femur was developed using computed tomography scans. Fracture models of the femoral neck were created with 3CS, BDSF, and FNS fixations. Von Mises stress on the proximal femur, fracture ends, internal fixators, and model displacements were assessed and compared across the three fixation methods (3CS, BDSF, and FNS) during the heel strike of normal walking. The maximum Von Mises stress in the proximal fragment was significantly higher with 3CS fixation compared to BDSF and FNS fixations (120.45 MPa vs. 82.44 MPa and 84.54 MPa, respectively). Regarding Von Mises stress distribution at the fracture ends, the highest stress in the 3CS group was 57.32 MPa, while BDSF and FNS groups showed 51.39 MPa and 49.23 MPa, respectively. Concerning implant stress, the FNS model exhibited greater Von Mises stress compared to the 3CS and BDSF models (236.67 MPa vs. 134.86 MPa and 140.69 MPa, respectively). Moreover, BDSF displayed slightly lower total displacement than 3CS fixation (7.19 mm vs. 7.66 mm), but slightly higher displacement than FNS (7.19 mm vs. 7.03 mm). This study concludes that BDSF outperforms 3CS fixation in terms of biomechanical efficacy and demonstrates similar performance to the FNS approach. As a result, BDSF stands as a dependable alternative for treating Pauwels type III femoral neck fractures.

Hexaphenoxycyclotriphosphazene (HPCTP), an unregistered chemical, has been used as a substitute for triphenyl phosphate in flame retardants and plasticizers. Here, we identified its metabolite, pentaphenoxycyclotriphosphazene (PPCTP) in the liver of Japanese medaka exposed to HPCTP. When sexually mature female medaka were exposed to HPCTP at 37.0, 90.4, and 465.4 ng/L for 35 days, the HPCTP concentration (642.1-2531.9 ng/g lipid weight [lw]) in the embryos considerably exceeded that (34.7-298.1 ng/g lw) in the maternal muscle, indicating remarkable maternal transfer. During 0-9 days postfertilization, the HPCTP concentration in the embryos decreased continuously, while the PPCTP concentration increased. HPCTP and PPCTP antagonized the retinoic X receptor with 50% inhibitory concentrations (IC50) of 34.8 and 21.2 μM, respectively, and PPCTP also antagonized the retinoic acid receptor with IC50 of 2.79 μM. Such antagonistic activities may contribute to eye deformity (4.7% at 465.4 ng/L), body malformation (2.1% at 90.4 ng/L and 6.8% at 465.4 ng/L), and early developmental mortality (11.6-21.7% in all exposure groups) of the embryos. HPCTP was detected in a main tributary of the Yangtze River Basin. Thus, HPCTP poses a risk to wild fish populations, given the developmental toxicities associated with this chemical and its metabolite.

Freshwater ecosystems are among the most threatened ecosystems on Earth. The freshwater biodiversity crisis has caused widespread global concern. Drought as one of the factors causing freshwater biodiversity is still poorly understood. Crayfish is often used in academic research as a biological indicator. In this study, flow cytometry, hematoxylin-eosin staining, and untargeted metabolomics were used to analyze the immune function, histopathology, and metabolism of crayfish under drought conditions. After drought exposure, the total hemocytes count (THC) was significantly decreased (from 8.9 × 105 mL−1 in the control group to 2.2 × 105 mL−1 at day 5). Phagocytosis decreased by 66% after 5 days of drought. The level of reactive oxygen species (ROS) in the hepatopancreas was upregulated. Moreover, histological disorder and metabolism changes in the hepatopancreas were obvious. These results indicate that drought suppresses immune function, disrupts the balance of oxidative and antioxidative systems, and induces tissue damage and metabolic changes in crayfish.

Antibiotic use in crops is an emerging concern, however, human exposure to antibiotics residues through consumption of plant-derived food has generally been neglected. This study is a comprehensive evaluation based on full consideration of exposure sources and analysis for nearly 100 antibiotics. A total of 58 antibiotic compounds were detected in drinking water (n = 66) and 49 in food samples (n = 150) from Shenzhen, China. The probable daily intake from drinking water and food consumption based on the total concentration of all the detected antibiotic compounds was 310, 200, and 130 ng/kg-body weight/day for preschool children, adolescents, and adults, with a maximum of up to 1400, 970 and 530 ng/kg-bw/day, respectively. Consumption of plant-derived food products, rather than animal-derived food, was the main source of the daily intake, and drinking water was a minor source. Risk assessment suggested a potentially unacceptable health risk from daily intake of norfloxacin, lincomycin and ciprofloxacin. Further research is warranted to alleviate food safety concerns related to antibiotic residues in plant-derived and animal-derived food products.

The widespread use of perfluoroalkyl and polyfluoroalkyl substances (PFASs) globally has led to increased pollution in the environment and has subsequently posed health risks. Perfluorooctanoic acid (PFOA), perfluorooctanesulfonic acid (PFOS), and perfluorooctanesulfonamide (PFOSA) has been reported to induce immunotoxicity, endocrine toxicity, and developmental toxicity. However, the associated mechanisms and induction of cardiotoxicity following PFASs exposure remains poorly understood. Here, we explored the cardiac toxicity and associated mechanism in zebrafish embryos after exposure to PFOA, PFOS, and PFOSA at 1 and 10 μg/L by RNA sequencing, morphological and physiological assessment, and behavioral alterations. Ingenuity Pathway Analysis (IPA) was used to predict disease and functions following exposure and predicted that the cardiac system was significantly affected by these three PFASs. The upregulation of miR-16–5p was predicted to act as an upstream regulator and involved in PFAS-induced pericardial edema. Cardiac output, an abnormal cardiac morphology, and atrial natriuretic peptide content were significantly altered following PFASs exposure. Furthermore, behavioral-level alterations were seen following exposure to PFASs. Our results indicated that PFASs could induce cardiotoxicity in zebrafish during early life stage development, the toxicity of PFOA and PFOSA may induce a more severe response relative to PFOS at relatively high concentrations according to the PCA analysis of all the tested data.

BACKGROUND:Epidemiologic studies indicated that phthalate exposure might be associated with diabetes mellitus (DM). However, discrepancies existed. The link between phthalate exposure and risk of DM remained unclarified. METHODS:We conducted a meta-analysis to explore the association between phthalate exposure and risk of DM. Effects of phthalate exposure on insulin resistance were also evaluated by systematic review. RESULTS:Seven studies involving 12,139 participants were included in this meta-analysis. Our results showed that urinary concentrations of phthalates were positively associated with risk of DM. The pooled ORs were 3.11 (95% CI: 1.16-8.37) for monomethyl phthalate (MMP), 1.27 (95% CI: 1.03-1.56) for mono-n-butyl phthalate (MnBP), 2.59 (95% CI: 1.10-6.10) for mono-isobutyl phthalate (MiBP), 1.99 (95% CI: 1.52-2.61) for mono-(2-ethyl-5-hydroxyhexyl) phthalate (MEHHP), 1.90 (95% CI: 1.40-2.57) for mono-(2-ethyl-5-oxohexyl) phthalate (MEOHP), 1.55 (95% CI: 1.10-2.20) for mono-(2-ethyl-5-carboxypentyl) phthalate (MECPP), and 2.39 (95% CI: 1.18-4.85) for mono-(3-carboxypropyl) phthalate (MCPP), respectively. Molar summation of di-2-ethylhexyl phthalate metabolites (∑DEHP) was also found to be correlated with risk of DM (OR 2.15, 95% CI: 1.48-3.13). No significant association with risk of DM was found regarding monoethyl phthalate (MEP), monobenzyl phthalate (MBzP) and mono(2-ethylhexyl) phthalate (MEHP). In literature review, most studies showed positive correlations of phthalates, especially ∑DEHP, with homeostasis model assessment of insulin resistance and fasting glucose. CONCLUSION:Exposure to phthalates, especially MMP, MnBP, MiBP, MCPP and DEHP metabolites, might be a risk factor of DM. Our results should be interpreted with caution due to heterogeneous design of enrolled studies.

Global fishery resources have been declining for decades, leading some fisheries to collapse. Although the decline is partly due to man-made chemical contamination, causal chemicals have been identified in only a few cases. We conducted consecutive 3-year investigations of embryonic mortality in Taihu Lake, China, including heavily contaminated northern areas, including Zhushan (ZS), Meiliang (ML), and Gonghu (GH), and the less polluted southeastern Suzhou (SZ). In 2016, 65.8% of crucian carp (Carassius carassius) embryos collected from ZS died before hatching, a substantially higher mortality rate than those observed in ML (21.7%), GH (15.2%), and SZ (2.2%). In 2017, the embryonic mortality rates were 38.8% in ZS, 1.3% in ML, 6.9% in GH, and 3.5% in SZ, and these rates strongly correlated with the concentrations of tris(1,3-dichloro-2-propyl)phosphate (TDCIPP): 104.2, 1.8, 4.6, and 4.1 ng/g lipid weight (lw) in embryos from ZS, ML, GH, and SZ, respectively. In 2018, embryonic mortality decreased to 4.0% in ZS and 1.2% in GH, consistent with decreases in embryonic TDCIPP concentrations to 17.1 and 1.5 ng/g lw, respectively. Moreover, the TDCIPP concentrations in dead embryos (70.5-216.8 ng/g lw) were much higher than those in live embryos (1.2-10.5 ng/g lw). Embryonic mortality was also observed in well-controlled laboratory experiments in which wild crucian carp were exposed to TDCIPP at concentrations similar to those measured in embryos collected from Taihu Lake, thus confirming TDCIPP as a causal factor in mass crucian carp embryo mortality in Taihu Lake. TDCIPP thus poses a threat to the sustainability of fisheries worldwide, given the high worldwide production volume of this chemical and its embryonic lethal toxicity.

2-Ethylhexyl diphenyl phosphate (EHDPP) has been detected in wild fish with high concentrations, which may pose a risk in the embryo development considering its potential maternal transfer. In this study, EHDPP was demonstrated to elicit antagonistic activity to medaka retinoic acid receptor (mRAR) and retinoic X receptor (mRXR) with 50% inhibitory concentration of 18 and 36 μM, respectively. After adult female medaka were exposed to EHDPP at 156, 405, and 1161 ng/L for 35 days, the embryonic EHDPP concentrations (364-4824 ng/g lipid weight (lw)) were higher than those in the maternal tissues (15.0-4166 ng/g lw), showing notable maternal transfer. The embryonic concentration of EHDPP decreased limitedly during 1-2 day post-fertilization (dpf, the main developmental window of eye) but then decreased sharply after 2 dpf. The transcript abundance of cyp26a1 was inhibited and subsequent increasing embryonic all-trans RA level was observed in embryos, showing RAR/RXR antagonistic activity. These results may specifically contribute to the increased eye deformity incidences in all exposure groups (up to 8.0%; 51/637) relative to the control (1.0%, 7/733). The response behavior of the larvae to light stimulation was impaired in a dose-dependent manner, demonstrating a vision disorder. Because such developmental toxicities were observed at the environmental level, EHDPP may pose a threat to the survival of wild larvae and therefore a population risk for wild fish.

Although huge interspecies differences in the response to dioxins have been acknowledged, toxic equivalency factors derived from rodent studies are often used to assess human health risk. To determine interspecies differences, we first developed a toxicokinetic model in humans by measuring dioxin concentrations in environmental and biomonitoring samples from Southern China. Significant positive correlations between dioxin concentrations in blood and age were observed for seven dioxin congeners, indicating an age-dependent elimination rate. Based on toxicokinetic models in humans, the half-lives of 15 dioxin congeners were estimated to be 1.60-28.55 years. In consideration that the highest contribution to total toxic equivalency in blood samples was by 12378-polychlorinated dibenzo-p-dioxin (P5CDD), this study developed a physiologically based pharmacokinetic (PBPK) model of 12378-P5CDD levels in the liver, kidney, and fat of C57/6J mice exposed to a single oral dose, and the half-life was estimated to be 26.1 days. Based on estimated half-lives in humans and mice, we determined that the interspecies difference of 12378-P5CDD was 71, much higher than the default usually used in risk assessment. These results could reduce the uncertainty human risk assessment of 12378-P5CDD, and our approach could be used to estimate the interspecies differences of other dioxin congeners.

Although high concentrations of 2-ethylhexyl diphenyl phosphate (EHDPP) have been detected in wild fish, its reproductive toxicity in fish remains unclear. In this study, we for the first time observed that EHDPP elicited androgen receptor (AR) antagonistic activity with a 50% inhibitory concentration of 37.5 μM. 2-Ethyl-5-hydroxyhexyl diphenyl phosphate was proved to be the dominant metabolite of EHDPP in Japanese medaka and elicited 3.1-fold stronger AR antagonistic activity than that of EHDPP. Medaka larvae (0-day post hatching) were exposed to EHDPP for 100 days, and intersex was observed in males from all exposure groups with significantly increased incidence (13.5-48.6%). 17β-E2 was promoted at 104 ng/L, and androgens were suppressed at 434 ng/L, which account for the intersex incidence in the high-exposure groups but do not explain the significant incidence of intersex in the 29.9 ng/L exposure group. The AR antagonistic activity of EHDPP and its metabolites must therefore play a key role in intersex incidence. EHDPP also significantly (p < 0.05) repressed reproductive behaviors of males in the 434 ng/L group and decreased fertility in high-exposure groups compared with the control. All the adverse outcomes were observed under environmentally relevant concentrations, implying that EHDPP poses an ecological risk for wild fish populations.

Oligomeric organophosphorus flame retardants (oOPFRs) are extensively used as substitutes for decabromodiphenyl ether. However, little is currently known about their occurrence in aquatic environments, their bioaccumulation, or their trophic transfer. In this study, concentrations of two o-OPFRs, bisphenol A bis(diphenyl phosphate) (BPA-BDPP) and 1,3-phenylene bis-(diphenyl phosphate) (PBDPP), were measured in water, sediment and food web organisms (plankton, invertebrates, and fishes) from Taihu Lake, China. BPA-BDPP was detected for the first time in surface water (<0.002-0.21 ng/L) and was frequently detected in sediment with concentrations (0.005-89 ng/g dry weight (dw)) comparable to the sum of traditional monomeric OPFRs (Em-OPFRs, 6.0 to 1.0 X 10(2) ng/g dw). BPA-BDPP was also detected in all biota species (0.012-0.52 ng/g wet weight (ww)). PBDPP was detected only in sediment (<0.004-1.2 ng/g dw) and aquatic organisms (<0.002-0.22 ng/g ww), at lower levels than BPA-BDPP. BPA-BDPP showed higher bioaccumulation factors (4.0 X 10(3) L water/g of lipid for plankton, 1.3 X 10(2) to 2.1 X 10(3) L water/g of lipid for fish species) than m-OPFRs (1.0 to 1.6 X 10(3) L water/g of lipid for plankton, 0.041 to 6.5 x 10(2) L water/g of lipid for fish species). The biota-sediment accumulation factors of BPA-BDPP and PBDPP were 0.54-1.7 g of TOC/g of lipid and 14.3-26.4 g of TOC/g of lipid, respectively. Concentrations of BPA-BDPP (ng/g lipid weight) decreased with trophic levels of the aquatic biota but without statistical significance (p = 0.07), which was likely induced by its rapid metabolism in fish. The results in this study will be important for future ecological risk assessments of emerging o-OPFRs.

There is growing evidence that aryl organophosphate flame retardants (aryl-OPFRs) can disrupt lipid metabolism in animals. However, epidemiologic studies of this possible phenomenon are lacking. In this study, we explored the association between urinary concentrations of three aryl-OPFRs (triphenyl phosphate (TPHP), tricresyl phosphate, and 2-ethylhexyl diphenyl phosphate (EHDPP)) metabolites and plasma levels of triglyceride (TG) and total cholesterol (TC) in 259 samples of the general population by comparing with six alkylated and chlorinated OPFRs. Multivariate linear regression analyses clarified that the log-transformed TC levels appeared to increase linearly across the quartiles of 5-OH-EHDPP (p trend <0.001) and 4-OH-TPHP (p trend <0.001), with an increase of 42.2% (95% CI, 36.2% to 48.2%) and 28.4% (95% CI, 26.5% to 30.3%) for the highest versus lowest quartiles of 5-OH-EHDPP and 4-OH-TPHP, respectively. The TG level also appeared to increase linearly across the quartiles of 5-OH-EHDPP (p trend <0.001) and 4-OH-TPHP (p trend <0.001). The TG level in the highest quartile of 5-OH-EHDPP was 89.9% higher (95% CI, 84.6% to 95.2%) than that in the lowest quartile and 45.3% higher (95% CI, 40.1% to 50.7%) than that in the highest 4-OH-TPHP quartile. We for the first time found that human exposure to EHDPP and TPHP is associated with increases in human TC and TG levels.

Considering triclosan (TCS) is ubiquitous in surface water and wild fish at relatively high concentrations, its adverse effects on gonadal development and reproduction were evaluated. After exposure for 100 days after hatching, the lowest observable effective concentration (LOEC) of TCS to significantly induce gonadal intersex in male Japanese medaka (Oryzias latipes) was 117.9 ng/L. Courtship frequency and hatching rates in male medaka were significantly inhibited, and the LOECs of TCS to impact courtship frequency and hatching rates were 117.9 and 17.2 ng/L, respectively. Male medaka were also exposed to binary mixtures of 2.2 ng/L 17 beta-estradiol (beta E2) with 2.3 ng/L TCS and 2.4 ng/L beta E2 with 117.9 ng/L TCS, and a more severe intersex induction and depressed mating behavior compared to those seen after exposure to only beta E2 or TCS were observed. The adverse effects of TCS and binary mixtures with beta E2 on testicular development and reproduction in fish at environmentally relevant concentrations are demonstrated here for the first time.

While triphenyl phosphate (TPhP) has been frequently detected in surface water and wildlife, its adverse effects on the gonadal development and reproductive behaviors of fish remain unclear. In this study, Japanese medaka (Oryzias latipes) were exposed to TPhP at concentrations of 134.1, 299.1, and 1429.5 ng/L from hatching [0 days posthatching (dph)] to sexual maturity (100 dph). TPhP induced gonadal intersex in male medaka in all exposure groups, and a significant increase was observed in the 1429.5 ng/L exposure group, with an incidence of 26.2% (11 of 42; p < 0.01). TPhP exposure also caused abnormal chasing behavior, with a lowest observable effective concentration (LOEC) of 299.1 ng/L, and reduced the desire of males for females in the 1429.5 ng/L group, demonstrating toxicity for fish reproductive behaviors. The anti-androgenic activity of TPhP via both androgen suppression and AR blocking was proposed to be the major mechanism of the observed effects. On the basis of dose-dependent inhibition of successful mating, fertilization, and hatching of eggs, environmentally relevant concentrations of Tphp pose a risk to fish reproduction.

本研究选取了《中国真菌志·第二十七卷·鹅膏科》中27个物种及变种,对这些分类单元的菌托形状、菌褶颜色、担子大小等形态学特征进行统计,依据这些形态学特征进行主成分和聚类分析,得到各物种及变种与各个形态学特征之间的关联程度.通过聚类分析将27个物种及变种分为四大类,最终结果与鹅膏属分类情况一致,验证了上述分析方法在鹅膏属分类研究领域具有可行性与准确性.