Quantifying fault slip rates and resolving rift segment linkage mechanisms is important for understanding the evolution of magma-rich rift systems and the broader processes of continental break-up. In tectonically and volcanically active rifts, such as Afar, there is commonly a lack of quantitative, observational constraints on long-term fault system evolution and linkage. Quantitative geomorphology has proven effective in magma-poor rifts, yet its application in magma-rich contexts remains limited. In this study, we analyze 26 river catchments crossing active normal faults across seven major grabens in Central Afar. Using integrated geomorphic and topographic methods including stream power law analyses, knickpoint retreat metrics and swath profiles, we quantify landscape signals of tectonic activity and construct a spatial model of graben evolution. Our results show that rift linkage in Afar has been active for at least 3 Myr, with individual grabens accommodating extension over timescales of 0.5-1.0 Myr. Multiple grabens are commonly active synchronously, but integrating the graben initiation ages with their measured fault slip rate shows that most extension localizes through the center of the linkage zone. Notably, the Dobi Graben, in the center of the linkage zone, exhibits the youngest graben formation age and highest throw rates in the region of 0.4-0.8 mm/yr, implying it is the locus of present-day deformation. Our results provide the first quantitative constraints on spatio-temporal graben evolution in Central Afar, showing that extension due to rift linkage is primarily accommodated by en-echelon, normal fault-bound graben systems with the deformation progressively localizing through time.
Hydrogen is a promising energy carrier capable of storing and delivering considerable energy. Green hydrogen is claimed to be one of the viable ways to replace fossil fuels and reduce greenhouse gas emissions. In terms of costs, it is still unable to compete with processes that utilize hydrocarbons, such as methane from natural gas, due to disparate energy requirements. To match the low cost of grey H 2 the key lies in developing efficient, durable, and cost-affordable water electrolysis devices. In this context, electrocatalysts play a critical role in determining both efficiency and costs. Unlike in acidic environments, where precious metals are needed to resist corrosion, alkaline conditions enable the effective use of more affordable and abundant materials. Within this framework, transition metal dichalcogenides (TMDs) have emerged as highly attractive PGM-free catalysts, owing to their unique structures, catalytic versatility, chemical stability, and economic viability. Among TMD materials, MoS 2 is a widely studied electrocatalyst for hydrogen production, characterized by its layered crystal structure and tunable band gap. Numerous state-of-the-art strategies have been implemented to improve the performance of MoS 2 , focusing on increasing the number of active sites for HER, such as edge sites and defects in the basal plane. Various synthesis methods have been employed to develop MoS 2 as an HER catalyst, ranging from low-energy approaches like hydrothermal synthesis, and colloidal synthesis to high-energy techniques such as chemical vapor deposition (CVD) and physical vapor deposition (PVD). The latter enables the direct growth of catalytic material layers on substrates with strong adhesion, without the use of polymeric binder. By selecting appropriate substrates, high-energy deposition techniques became a powerful strategy to improve catalyst synthesis, scale up production, and improve performance in hydrogen evolution systems. Moreover, the right choice of substrate can mitigate the low conductivity of MoS 2 which is due to its wide bandgap, limiting the rate of the HER. Within the PVD techniques, Ionized Jet Deposition is emerging as a promising cost-efficient, and flexible fabrication technique for growing MoS 2 thin films on various substrates. It presents a scalable and cost-effective approach for synthesizing MoS 2 thin films directly on technologically relevant electrode substrates, effectively addressing key challenges in commercializing PGM-free catalysts. Unlike conventional techniques like CVD and other PVD techniques, IJD eliminates the need for high-temperature (≈700–1000 °C) annealing steps to grow crystalline catalysts, significantly reducing energy consumption. In this work, the IJD technique was successfully employed to grow MoS 2 on both commercially available and custom-made carbon supports (Figure 1a). The samples were thoroughly studied and characterized in terms of both electrochemical activity performance and long-term stability under alkaline electrolysis conditions. Using a microporous carbon layer interposed between the support and the catalyst improves catalytic performance (Figure 1b). For example, MoS₂ deposited on Freudenberg carbon support exhibited the best catalytic activity, achieving a current density of 10 mA µg ⁻ 1 Mo at −0.48 V versus RHE in an alkaline environment, even with a low catalyst loading (12–49 µg cm ⁻ 2 ). In addition, stability tests and bubble evolution studies were used as additional characterization. The hydrophilic and hydrophobic properties reveal a strong correlation between smaller H 2 bubble sizes and lower contact angles on the electrode surface after testing. This study highlights the significance of the support material, as its properties play a crucial role in optimizing catalyst performance. Understanding these factors will facilitate the initiation of large-scale applications of MoS 2 electrodes in the field of electrolyzers, setting the stage for their industrial-scale use in the near future. Figure 1. a) Pictorial view of the prepared electrode. b) HER curves fro the prepared catalysts. Letter represent different carbon suppor, nubmers the energy used for depostion of MoS 2 Figure 1
Since the end of the Cold War, a rejuvenated wide-ranging debate has unfolded about reforming the UN Security Council ( SC ) even though states have not reached any agreement. This paper considers the goals that should inspire any reform of the SC . Should it be made explicit in what capacity the Member States act: in their own interest, that of their geographical group, or to promote the purposes of the United Nations? A review of the voting patterns in the SC and the resolutions blocked by the vetoes of permanent members show the core issues blocking the institution. The voting pattern allows us to better understand the scope of the reform proposals. We distinguish between reforms advocating enlargement—adding new members without altering other procedures—and those involving a wider restructuring, also limiting the veto power of the permanent members. Finally, we suggest exploring legal and political mechanisms to include regional organizations, starting with the European Union.
