The challenges of breast cancer treatment still exist despite significant progress. The challenges include tumor heterogeneity, drug resistance and systemic toxicity. However, the development of protein nanomedicine provides a good option to address these. The present review examines the possibilities of using protein-based nanomedicine in breast cancer treatment. It looks at targeted drug delivery, immune modulation and the mechanism of enhanced permeability and retention (EPR) for the precise targeting of the tumor. The cases refer to specific subtypes such as HER2, ER/PR positive breast cancer and the modification of the tumor microenvironment. The small doses produced better results in terms of safety and efficiency of treatment. The examples of the medicines used include Abraxane[Formula: see text] and Kadcyla[Formula: see text]. The use of these medicines gives positive results in hypersensitive patients. However, there are still challenges related to regulatory approvals, immunogenicity and scalability that should be improved.
Nanotechnology has emerged as a transformative approach in modern medicine, offering innovative strategies for disease diagnosis, treatment, and prevention. Nanoparticles, typically ranging from 1 to 100 nm in size, possess unique physicochemical properties that enable targeted drug delivery, enhanced therapeutic efficacy, and reduced systemic toxicity. This review provides a comprehensive overview of the major types of nanoparticles used in disease treatment, including lipid-based, polymeric, metallic, magnetic, and carbon-based nanoparticles. Their applications across various disease domains, such as cancer, infectious diseases, neurological disorders, and cardiovascular conditions, are discussed. In addition, the benefits and limitations associated with nanoparticle-based therapies, including safety concerns and regulatory challenges, are critically examined. Finally, future perspectives on the clinical translation and advancement of nanomedicine are highlighted.
Cardiovascular Diseases (CVDs) are increasingly recognized as diseases of high metabolic imbalance, where disruption in fatty acid oxidation, mitochondrial function, redox homeostasis and cellular energetics can lead to Heart Failure (HF). As traditional pharmacotherapies struggle to precisely modulate these metabolic pathways without systemic toxicity, nanotechnology has emerged as a transformative platform capable of targeted, controlled and pathway-specific intervention. This narrative review synthesizes recent advances in metabolic reprogramming–targeted nanotherapies, highlighting how engineered nanoparticles enable precise modulation of cardiac metabolic pathways through delivery of siRNA, small molecules and metabolic regulators, as well as mitochondrial-targeted and ROS-scavenging nanoplatforms. Preclinical studies demonstrate improved cardiac function, metabolic efficiency and structural remodeling, underscoring the therapeutic potential of these approaches. However, clinical translation remains constrained by challenges in cardiomyocyte-specific targeting, biodistribution, long-term safety and scalable formulation. Emerging strategies such as biomimetic nanoparticles, transcriptomic-guided targeting and multifunctional nanoplatforms are discussed as promising directions for next-generation cardiovascular nanotherapeutics that address CVDs as fundamentally metabolic diseases.
Self-emulsifying drug delivery systems (SEDDS) represent a paradigm shift in topical drug delivery, overcoming the critical challenges like stability of the drug, poor drug penetration and suboptimal patient compliance. This review consolidates the current knowledge on the use of topical SEDDS and furnishes an account of literature instances on it, while emphasizing the key formulation aspects of SEDDS. It discusses components, classifications and mechanisms of self-emulsification in SEDDS, along with the role of the pseudo-ternary phase diagrams in optimization of formulation. The review explores different types of SEDDS, like supersaturated (st-SNEDDS) and solid (s-SNEDDS), highlighting their advantages over traditional formulations and associated challenges. Various databases, utilizing search engines like Google Scholar, PubMed and Science Direct, were used to search and collect relevant literature. Certainly, the use of SEDDS for topical delivery is quite promising, yet it is at an evolving stage. The formulation strategies for the topical SEDDS are akin to oral SEDDS; however are not very well researched. In this regard, more studies need to be carried out for a lucid comprehension of the mechanism of their absorption and strategies should be developed to counteract the irritation potential owing to the use of surfactants. With a limited existing literature on the topical SEDDS, this area presents a substantial opportunity for exploration and innovation, paving the way for more patient-friendly and effective topical formulations.
The nanoparticles, which are coated with polydopamine (PDA), have become a versatile and promising platform in the treatment of cancer as they possess high biocompatibility, high efficiency in photothermal conversion and multipurpose surface chemistry. Based on adhesive proteins of mussels, polydopamine surfaces provide a general strategy of surface modification that can be loaded with drugs, targeted, release stimuli-controllable and multimodal therapeutics. This review will provide a fundamental overview of the chemistry of polydopamine formation and its distinct physicochemical characteristics, discuss the various architectures of PDA-coated nanoparticles, and critically analyze their application in photothermal therapy, chemotherapy, photodynamic therapy, immunotherapy and combination therapies. We provide information about the principles of loading and release of drugs through the PDA, photothermal conversion characteristics that allow accurate tumor ablation and synergistic outcomes in the multimodal therapeutic strategies. In addition, we discuss the recent problems in clinical translation, such as scalability, biosafety in the long run, regulation and optimization of pharmacokinetics. Comprising contemporary research and pinpointing areas requiring essential knowledge, this review will serve to generate a plan of action on how PDA-coated nanoparticles can be translated from the bench to the bedside and may eventually help to save more lives in cancer therapy.
Breast cancer remains a leading cause of cancer-related morbidity and mortality worldwide, and conventional chemotherapy with paclitaxel (PTX) is limited by poor solubility, systemic toxicity, and suboptimal tumor targeting. Liposomal formulations of PTX have emerged as promising nanocarrier-based strategies to overcome these challenges by enhancing drug solubility, improving pharmacokinetics, reducing adverse effects, and enabling targeted delivery. This review provides a comprehensive overview of PTX liposomal formulations, including conventional, PEGylated, targeted, and stimuli-responsive liposomes, with emphasis on their composition, preparation methods, and optimization parameters. Clinical and preclinical studies, including recent advances (2024–2025), highlight improved cellular uptake, antitumor efficacy, and safety profiles compared to conventional PTX. The review also discusses approved formulations (e.g., Lipusu®), ongoing clinical trials, and combination therapy approaches. Finally, challenges related to scale-up, stability, regulatory approval, and clinical translation are addressed, alongside emerging trends such as smart liposomes, hybrid nanocarriers, and personalized therapy. Collectively, liposomal PTX represents a promising platform for enhancing therapeutic outcomes in breast cancer, with ongoing research paving the way for next-generation, safer, and more effective chemotherapy strategies.
Nanomaterials, which range in size from 1 nm to 100 nm, have special physical, chemical and electrical characteristics that make them extremely promising for use in environmental technologies, electronics, energy and medicine. The discovery and development of nanomaterials has been greatly expedited in recent years by the integration of artificial intelligence (AI) and sophisticated computer techniques. This review examines how machine learning (ML) and AI techniques, along with computational methods like density functional theory (DFT), Monte Carlo (MC) and molecular dynamics (MD) simulations, can be used to predict material properties and optimize synthesis processes. Research indicates that when compared to conventional trial-and-error methods, AI-assisted models can improve prediction accuracy for nanomaterial attributes while cutting computational screening time by up to 60–80%. Furthermore, faster identification of ideal synthesis conditions and material architectures is made possible by AI-driven automation and robotic experimentation platforms. Notwithstanding these developments, problems with toxicity assessment, environmental effect assessment and AI model interpretability still exist. All things considered, the combination of AI and computational modeling offers a strong foundation for boosting nanomaterial innovation and aiding in the creation of safer and more effective materials for upcoming technological uses.
Cell-derived vesicles or exosomes, as biomimetic systems, have significant potential to overcome the challenges associated with conventional drug delivery methods due to their inherent biocompatibility, precise targeting capabilities of extracellular vesicles and low immunogenicity, and are emerging as promising drug carriers for targeted drug delivery in neurodegenerative diseases. Exosomes ensure local drug delivery to the affected areas of the central nervous system by effectively crossing the highly selective and dynamic blood–brain barrier. In addition, significant advances in exosome engineering techniques have enabled the customization of vesicle properties such as surface modifications and cargo loading to enhance therapeutic efficacy. In this review, exosomes and their applications in drug delivery systems are introduced, and various strategies for engineering exosomes to improve cargo delivery, as well as their use in neurodegenerative disorders, are reviewed, along with challenges and future prospects.
Eye diseases continue to pose a serious global health issue, partly because the eye itself is such a difficult organ to treat. Special construction and protective barriers reduce the bioavailability, the extent to which drugs can penetrate it and reach the target. It usually requires a few doses for patients, so they must take them to keep on track and receive effective treatment. To overcome this, nanocarrier-based delivery systems have been explored and have great potential in terms of improved drug delivery. They can increase drug retention, increase penetration and allow for controlled drug release and increased efficacy. However, the process of creating and optimizing such nanosized systems and transferring them to the clinic is a challenging and complicated process. In recent years, Artificial Intelligence has played a big part in finding solutions to these challenges. From drug discovery to drug formulation development, AI helps to streamline different aspects of drug development, including drug development image analysis, clinical trial planning and even personalized medicine. However, researchers are enhancing their capacity to predict drug behavior and host responses using tools such as machine learning and deep learning. Together with new technologies like AI-assisted nanocarrier design and Digital Twin drug delivery models, these can provide the possibility to develop treatments more efficiently, with less animal and human testing and a quicker path to clinical application. This review focuses on the recent advances in the applications of AI in ocular drug delivery, both from preclinical and clinical perspectives. It also considers current obstacles such as data integration, transparency and reliability. These advances collectively herald a future of more effective, individualized, safe and precise treatments in the eye.
The high resistance to therapy, molecular heterogeneity, early metastasis and quick drug resistance make triple-negative breast cancer (TNBC) difficult and even impossible to treat. Conventional chemotherapy is highly toxic, not specifically targeting the tumor and has limited efficacy, so more sophisticated delivery mechanisms are required. To overcome these shortcomings, lipid nanotechnology is provided as a controlled, targeted and multifunctional drug delivery system. This review outlines the recent developments of lipid nanoparticles for TNBC, including liposomes, solid lipid nanoparticles, nanostructured lipid carriers, lipid–polymer hybrids, ionizable lipid nanoparticles and biomimetic vesicles. These systems enable improved tumor targeting and delivery of chemotherapeutics, gene-editing agents and combination therapeutics. Rational design, targeting strategies, modulation of the tumor microenvironment, targeting cancer stem cells and breaking multidrug resistance are highlighted. Pharmacokinetic, safety, manufacturing, regulatory and translational issues are discussed, along with preclinical and emerging clinical evidence. Lastly, future directions are suggested to help develop modular, precise and clinically scalable lipid nanoparticle systems for effective management of TNBC.
Mitochondria play a central role in cellular bioenergetics, apoptosis regulation and redox homeostasis, making them attractive therapeutic targets in diverse pathologies, including neurodegeneration, ischemia-reperfusion injury, metabolic disorders and cancer. However, precise delivery of therapeutics to this organelle remains challenging due to its double-membrane barrier, membrane potential-driven selectivity and the need for subcellular targeting without systemic toxicity. Lipid nanodiscs — synthetic, disc-shaped phospholipid bilayers stabilized by membrane scaffold proteins (MSPs) — have emerged as a modular and structurally uniform platform capable of embedding hydrophobic drugs, membrane proteins or targeting ligands. Their tunable size, composition and functionalization with moieties such as triphenylphosphonium (TPP), mitochondria-penetrating peptides (MPPs) or cardiolipin enable high targeting specificity and efficient mitochondrial localization. This review provides a comprehensive analysis of lipid nanodisc structural fundamentals, targeting mechanisms and bioengineering strategies, supported by quantitative comparative metrics against other mitochondrial delivery platforms. Preclinical evidence demonstrates substantial bioenergetic restoration (ATP [Formula: see text] 55–70%), oxidative stress mitigation (ROS [Formula: see text] 40–65%) and disease-modifying effects across neurological, cardiovascular, metabolic and oncological models. Emerging integration of artificial intelligence (AI) and machine learning (ML) into nanodisc design is accelerating optimization of lipid composition, ligand density, release kinetics and safety profiles, reducing development timelines by over 40%. Despite significant translational promise, challenges remain in large-scale GMP manufacturing, long-term stability, regulatory pathway navigation and in vivo biodistribution. Addressing these hurdles through advanced protein engineering, stimuli-responsive lipid chemistries and AI-guided design could position lipid nanodiscs as a cornerstone technology in next-generation precision mitochondrial therapeutics.
Psoriasis is a chronic, immune-mediated inflammatory skin disorder characterized by excessive keratinocyte proliferation and the formation of erythematous, scaly plaques. Despite the availability of conventional therapies such as corticosteroids, vitamin D analogs and systemic immunomodulators, their limited efficacy, adverse effects and poor patient adherence highlight the need for innovative treatment approaches. Recent advances in nanotechnology, particularly the development of metal-based nanoparticles (MNPs), have opened new avenues for targeted and efficient psoriasis management. MNPs — including gold (AuNPs), silver (AgNPs), zinc oxide (ZnONPs) and titanium dioxide (TiO 2 NPs) — possess unique physicochemical features, such as high surface-to-volume ratio and localized surface plasmon resonance (SPR), which enhance drug solubility, stability and site-specific delivery. These nanoparticles can effectively penetrate psoriatic lesions, attenuate inflammation, regulate immune mediators and reduce oxidative stress while minimizing systemic exposure. Furthermore, MNPs exhibit inherent anti-inflammatory, antioxidant and antimicrobial activities, making them suitable candidates for topical formulations such as creams, gels and nano-lotions. Although promising preclinical findings support their therapeutic potential, comprehensive clinical studies are still required to validate their safety, pharmacokinetics and long-term outcomes. Overall, metal-based nanocarriers represent a transformative strategy for improving therapeutic precision and patient compliance in psoriasis management.
Tuberculosis is the leading cause of mortality from infectious diseases worldwide, with rifampicin as a first-line drug. However, its poor solubility and inconsistent bioavailability limit therapeutic outcomes and contribute to drug resistance. This study aimed to enhance rifampicin solubility and delivery using chitosan-based nanosuspensions. Rifampicin-loaded nanosuspensions were prepared by the ionic gelation method employing chitosan as a biodegradable polymer and Pluronic F68, Tween 80 and Span 60 as stabilizers. The formulations were evaluated for drug entrapment efficiency, particle size, Polydispersity Index (PDI), zeta potential, morphology (SEM), in-vitro drug release, kinetic modeling and stability. Entrapment efficiency ranged from 75.7% to 89.3%, with Pluronic F68 formulations showing the highest values. The optimized batch (F24) demonstrated a mean particle size of 120.08 nm, PDI of 0.110 and zeta potential of +48.49 mV, indicating good stability. SEM confirmed spherical, nonagglomerated particles. The optimized nanosuspension achieved a sustained drug release of 87.17% over 12 h and followed zero-order and Korsmeyer-Peppas kinetics. Stability studies revealed consistent performance under refrigerated storage for 60 days. Chitosan-based nanosuspensions significantly improved rifampicin solubility, stability and release profile. The optimized formulation offers a promising approach to overcome bioavailability limitations of rifampicin and may enhance therapeutic efficacy in tuberculosis management. This strategy can potentially be extended to other poorly soluble drugs.
The increasing environmental concerns with petroleum-based plastics have led to an increased pace in the development of biodegradable plastics based on renewable resources. This paper has developed a tungsten-mediated polyhydroxyalkanoates (PHA)-Colocasia esculenta (taro) starch bioplastic and its application in sustainable packaging. Their characteristics were structural, mechanical, barrier, biodegradation and antimicrobial. The bioplastic developed had tensile strength of 3.52 + - 0.025 Mpa which means that the bioplastic was of moderate mechanical strength and can be used in flexible film applications. Intermolecular interactions were confirmed by the FTIR analysis, as well as semi-crystalline structure, with SEM showing a relatively uniform morphology with a surface roughness (0.57 mm). The material was found to be biodegradable, with the water solubility (23.45) and moisture content (7.29) confirming these characteristics but moisture sensitivity was a limitation. Environmental degradation studies by biodegradation proved to be effective and antimicrobial activity was lower and not of the desired standard efficacy. All in all, it is shown in the material that the balance between structural integrity and biodegradability is achieved, which makes it suitable both in short-term and disposable packaging. More optimization is needed to provide improved mechanical strength and barrier performance.
Fluticasone propionate (FP) NIMs produced with spray drying technology have been developed and assessed in vivo in this work in order to deliver the drug directly to the lungs. Using the quality by design (QbD) approach, chitosan (CS) NIMs loaded with FP have been developed by spray drying. To forecast the ultimate product quality, QbD, a modern regulatory-based quality management technique, was employed. Mannitol and leucine have been used as the deaggregating agent and to enhance aerosolization behavior, respectively. The impact of three variables, polymer content, inlet temperature and feed flow rate check, on quality parameters, such as particle size and entrapment efficiency, was determined based on risk assessment. A Box-Behnken design was applied for further optimization. The formulated compounds underwent characterization for physical attributes employing differential scanning calorimetry (DSC), Fourier transform infrared spectroscopy (FTIR) and scanning electron microscopy (SEM). Additionally, in vitro assessments, X-ray diffraction analyses and in vitro deposition evaluations were conducted utilizing a cascade impactor. In accordance with the QbD paradigm, the design space (DS) was meticulously refined through the integration of chosen variables, achieving an entrapment efficiency exceeding 50% w/w, alongside a particle size range of 800-4000 nm. The inlet temperature and polymer concentration had the greatest effects on the particle size. In vitro drug release followed initial burst release around 20.26% in 3-4 h with sustained drug release of 98.43% NIMs emitted 36-45% respirable fraction, indicating deep targeting of FP to the pulmonary. Lung histopathological studies proved the tissue compatibility of formulations to be safe and effective.
Recent advances in materials science have expanded the industry's presence in the development of metal nanoparticles such as gold, silver, palladium, copper, iron and iron oxides, in delivering therapeutics for enhanced cancer treatment. Numerous studies have investigated the synthesis of metallic nanoparticles (MNPs) utilizing "green chemistry", which uses biological agents to reduce the need for solvents and modulate the physicochemical and biological characteristics of the final products. MNPs have unique structural and physicochemical characteristics that broaden their biomedical applications. From biomolecule identification to the delivery of genes, therapeutic agents, DNA, RNA, enzymes, nucleic acids and amino acids, these advances represent a defining focus of the present century. Diagnostic tests have revolutionized the process for evaluating biomolecules by using the optical characteristics of MNPs to decrease the sample size, analysis time and improve the validity of the results. This review highlights green synthesis strategies of MNPs, their applications in biosensing and their therapeutic potential, including drug delivery, photothermal therapy and multimodal approaches, along with disease-specific analyses across major cancers.
Psoriasis is a long-term disease of the skin, which is characterized by inflammation and an increased rate of skin cells' division as well as impaired skin barrier integrity. This is because, in conventional treatments, it becomes very hard to administer the drugs to the affected region. Niosomes, which are nonionic surfactant-based vesicles, have been established as an improved drug delivery system to boost the permeation and effectiveness of drugs applied to the skin. This research work is centered on the development and assessment of Mometasone furoate Niosomal Gel for the management of psoriasis. Mometasone niosomal formulations were prepared by the ether injection method and the physicochemical properties, including particle size, zeta potential, entrapment efficiency, and drug release from niosomes, were determined. These niosomes were then added to a gel matrix to obtain the niosomal gel formulation. The physico-chemical properties such as pH, viscosity and yield stress were determined. The MF niosomal gel was compared to the conventional gel in terms of in vitro drug release, permeation studies across excised mice skin and in vivo efficacy assessment in an Imiquimod-induced psoriasis model in albino mice. Parameters, including the morphological skin changes, Psoriasis Area and Severity Index (PASI), the degree of hydration in the stratum corneum, transepidermal water loss (TEWL), and spleen index, were determined in addition to histology of the treated skin. Based on the results, the niosomal drug delivery system holds a lot of promise for further studies, which could aid in effective topical treatment for psoriasis.
Nanoparticle size is a central design parameter governing transport, biological interactions and therapeutic efficacy in cancer nanomedicine. While numerous studies report size-dependent improvements in circulation time, tumor accumulation and cellular uptake, the translation of these findings into clinical success remains inconsistent. This review critically examines how nanoparticle size influences vascular transport, tumor penetration, immune clearance and therapeutic outcome, emphasizing mechanistic trade-offs rather than empirical trends alone. We integrate recent preclinical and clinical evidence to highlight the context-dependent limitations of widely accepted paradigms such as the enhanced permeability and retention (EPR) effect. By introducing a unifying conceptual framework that links size to competing transport and clearance processes, this review identifies why many size-optimized systems fail clinically despite promising preclinical performance. Finally, we discuss emerging strategies-including stimuli-responsive systems, patient stratification and data-driven optimization that may enable more reliable clinical translation of size-engineered nanomedicines.
Plant virus infections continue to pose a serious threat to global food security, causing significant agricultural and economic losses. Conventional diagnostic techniques such as enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay (ELISA), polymerase chain reaction (PCR)and next-generation sequencing (NGS) are highly sensitive and specific but are complex, require trained personnel and involve long processing times. The convergence of nanotechnology and biosensing has revolutionized plant virus diagnostics by enabling rapid, ultrasensitive and portable analytical platforms. This review presents an overview of recent progress in nanosensor-based detection of plant viral pathogens, emphasizing advances in diagnostic platforms, transduction mechanisms, nanomaterial technologies, and their applications in both laboratory and field conditions. Nanosensors employing gold nanoparticles, graphene, carbon nanotubes, quantum dots and metal oxides have demonstrated excellent analytical performance for detecting major plant viruses such as tobacco mosaic virus, cucumber mosaic virus, potato virus Y and tomato yellow leaf curl virus. Depending on their transduction mechanism - electrochemical, optical, piezoelectric, or field-effect transistor (FET)-based - these nanosensors exhibit femto- to attomolar sensitivity, rapid response and seamless integration with paper-based and microfluidic systems. Their application in point-of-care (POC) and field diagnostics enables early detection and real-time monitoring of crop health. Despite these advances, challenges persist regarding reproducibility, sensor stability, environmental interference and large-scale commercialization. Emerging technologies such as crispr-cas-integrated nanosensors, green nanomaterial synthesis, nanocomposite stabilization and AI-driven data analytics are paving the way for robust and scalable platforms. The integration of nanosensor technology with Internet of Things (IoT) paradigms and precision agriculture systems heralds a new generation of intelligent, sustainable and technology-enabled crop protection.
